Economic Impacts of Smuggling in Pakistan

Economic Impacts of Smuggling in Pakistan Smuggling basically refers to the transfer of goods illegally from one place to another. It is an activity which consists of the importation or exportation of goods or living beings by wrong or unlawful means with the objective of evading taxes. It is illegal methods of conducting business and is done secretly. The principle causes of smuggling are greed for wealth ignorance and lack of nationalism or patriotism. X-ray of an abdomen piled up with cocaine       The objective of this report is to look at the economic impacts of smuggling in Pakistan. There are various motivations to smuggle in this country. These include the participation in illegal activities, such as, drug trade, illegal weapons trade, exotic wildlife trade, illegal immigration or illegal emigration, tax evasion, providing contraband to a prison inmate, or the theft of the items being smuggled. The main objectives are: What are the national trends on trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants in Pakistan? What are the main smuggling routes? What is the impact of Pakistans economic issues on trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants? The scope of the research is how can we get awareness about these types of illegal trade of goods in Pakistan, identify key dynamics and provide policy and program recommendations for that. However it is difficult to determine due to lack of reliable data but we can try our level best through discussing about these types of illegal economy of Pakistan and offer long-term solutions that how can we safe our economy from these illegal trade of goods to support Pakistan. This report attempts to map out the proceeds from: Drugs and Precursors trafficking Kidnapping from ransom Trafficking of arms Human trafficking Migrant Smuggling These crimes are based on their contribution towards global, rational, regional risks. This study focus upon government policies towards illegal economy through group discussion. In past Pakistan faced difficulties because of smuggling. Smuggling demolished our economy so many times in multidimensional way. It undermines the local industries and decreases the volume of earnings and revenue which is collected from duties and service sectors. The volume of informal economy is raised up to 50 to 60% of the formal economy. Revenue loss on account of smuggling as estimated by the World Bank, amounted to US 35$ billion during nine years (2000-2009). Pak-Afghan border is the main problem. People living in Chaman didnt need visas to cross the border. They run the business on both sides as well as marriages. Goods up to 5 to 6 billion dollars were smuggled from Afghanistan to Pakistan through trade route especially dry fruits. Afghanistan also imports goods illegally from Pakistan such as milk, juices and other machinery items etc. Many of Pakhtoons have relatives on both sides. Afghans went to Pakistan for medical checkup, family functions and for business etc.But suddenly the travelling between two countries stopped. Pakistan has announced that for security reasons only Afghans with proper documents will be allowed to cross the border. Up to 25000 people use to cross border every day. One day 1 of the new policy thousands of people were facing problem in travelling from Afghanistan to Pakistan. Pushtoons with families across the border are worry about this situation. Afghan transit trade becomes a biggest source of smuggling. On the period of 2008-2010 the revenue loss is about 2.5 to 3 billion which are estimated annually during this period. The money which is collected illegally by some politicians, businessmen and terrorist are transferred to Swiss Bank. Up to $200 billion has transferred to Swiss Bank. Up to $40 billion alone black money lying in Swiss Bank of the year 2008-2009.On the other hand economy of Pakistan is increasing at the alarming rate of 20% per annum. Pakistanis entered the UK illegally and still continue for earning money. Around 430,000 Pakistanis live in UK. Due to the illegal migration, many Pakistanis were imprisoned in foreign jails. Beside these issues, there was an issue about tobacco control in Pakistan. Taxes on tobacco were increased due to which prices of cigarette were increased by 10%. Therefore, the demand for cigarette has reduced by 11.7%. The volume of smuggling is 18 billion Pakistani Rupees in cigarette and other tobacco products. Similarly, 22 billion Pakistani Rupees in petroleum product, 25 billion in automotive parts and 200 billion Pakistani Rupees in other commodities like cosmetics, cloth, medicines etc. People of Pakistan were using petroleum products smuggled from Iran because it is cheaper than that of Pakistan. The petroleum products up to 2 billion were smuggled from Iran to Pakistan. This situation is getting worse day by day. According to a survey in 2013, the smuggling in electronics has increased drastically. Each day thousands of cellphones and laptops are being shipped or imported in Pakistan alone in electronic markets illegally. Another research in this regard revealed that smuggler crosses Wahga border which has been opened by the president regime which would result in a huge chunk of Indian goods destined for Afghanistan would ultimately land in our domestic market which would destroy the national economy. They uses Pak-Iran border and Pak-Afghan border along with the coastal areas of Baluchistan to smuggle these goods to various parts of the country. This situation is very serious for the economy of Pakistan as these factors have great impact on any economy. The economic growth of Pakistan is already declining; one of the main factors is illegal trading or smuggling. The taxes which are imposed to all the imports are increasing therefore; the smuggling of commodities is at high right now. A local good is twice the price of the same good that has been smuggled. Or if its of same price, then the illegally transferred good is more reliable or more durable. All because of these factors the demand of these smuggled products are also very high. A middle class citizen who cant afford expensive stuff or goods can now buy just about anything because the price of smuggled stuff is half of what its actually worth. Government of Pakistan has introduced policies, rules and regulations to avoid these illegal trades. They have now put extra measures and security to afghan-Pakistan borders where smuggling is mostly done from. Also different check-up points have been made after few miles in highways to check the vehicles in order to avoid terrorism and smuggling in Pakistan. So, Government is taking steps to reduce these illegal trades but their efforts as of now are still in vain. Smuggling is a very serious matter in the entire world but unfortunately its condition in Pakistan is worse than the most of the countries in the word. Most of the smuggling goods in and out Afghanistan are through Pakistan. The Wagha Border is the main route of transportation of these illegal activities. To make the situation even worse, unfortunately out of 30 routes only 6 of these routes are under control of customs department of borders in Pakistan. The legal goods smuggled through Pakistan in different destinations are worth 2.8 Billion Dollars per year alone. In fact according to the latest reports Pakistan is losing 2.62 Billion worth of revenue per year by the smuggling of just 11 goods. The revenue is lost in the form of duties and taxes on smuggled goods that could be far higher than $2.63 billion or Rs276 billion, if the scope of the study is widened or spread to all the smuggled goods. The report took into account the impact of smuggling mobile phones, tea, vehicles, diesel, tires, auto parts, steel sheets, cigarettes, flat screens, plastics, and garments; on revenues, industrial production, investment and employment. In order to reduce the rate of smuggling government has to take some serious steps as it has a very bad impact in our economy. As a developing country, having smuggling rate as high as in Pakistan means bad news for the future. The goods that our country supply in its market is worth way more than the smuggled goods available in black markets. Even the concept of the black market has been fading in Pakistan because one can find smuggled almost anywhere in Pakistan. Steps must be taken to reduce this problem. All the NATO vehicles transporting commodities should be checked and approved by the Pakistani concerned authorities, also other vehicles carrying commodities in and out of Pakistan. Pakistani Borders should also be equipped with latest tech to detect any weapons or other illegal items that could be detected. In this report all the factors regarding smuggling shall be briefly discussed. On the very first section, forms of smuggling and there cautions will defined and apart from that its impacts on the economy of Pakistan shall also be discussed. From the given statistics of the past summaries of smuggling in Pakistan the future outcome and rate can be determined. Analyzing deportation patterns can be the only means of estimating volume of trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants. TABLE: GRAPH 1: This precise data shows that Pakistan has been increasing since 2007 with 16% change over the period of 2007-2013.Between the period of 2007- 2008 and 2010-2013 there is increase in volume while a decline was experienced from 2008-2010.There was highest deportees in 2013 and lowest deportees in 2010. GRAPH 2: Assessing the illegal economy is a challenging task.It is estimated that about USD 13,941 (PKR 15 lakhs = PKR 1,500,000) is charged by agents for destinations in Europe and about USD 13,011.43 14,870.21 (PKR 14 16 lakh) being charged for the United Kingdom. For the East it is estimated that USD 5,576.31 4,646.92 (PKR 5-6 lakhs) is charged for destinations like Malaysia and Indonesia. The minimum illegal ecocomy since 2007 can be estimated to be the following: TABLE: Overall it can be observed that numbers are increasing as these are based on deportation numbers. It has been observed that smuggling of migrants involves groups of participant. Each participant involves in an economic exchange.For Pakistan the total sum of services provided are following: It has been observed by the authorities that if detectors detected smuggled migrants then they punished them for 15 days in jail and a fine of between 200 to 1000 USD (PKR 20000 100000). If the detected smuggled migrant shares no specific information about the agent during the legal process he is able to receive 2 more attempts to take the same route without paying any additional fee to the agent. This practice makes the problem to identify the agents supporting the smuggling of migrants. GRAPH 3: On Human Trafficking the male to female ratio was 68% and 32% in 2007.By 2010 this has shown a minor increase in female share to 41%. This indicates that the number of female agents or traffickers is increasing in the region. In Pakistan, it is not possible to see any national trend on this phenomenon. The arrest rate nevertheless can be seen to be increasing for the most wanted traffickers.

Basic Principles of Democracy Essay

Democracy comes from the Greek word, â€Å"demos,† meaning people. In democracies, it is the people who hold sovereign power over legislator and government. Democracy is a form of government in which power is held by people under a free electoral system. It is derived from the Greek ÃŽ ´ÃŽ ·ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ºÃ ÃŽ ±Ãâ€žÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ±, â€Å"popular government†] which was coined from ÃŽ ´ÃŽ ®ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (dÄ“mos), â€Å"people† and ÃŽ ºÃ ÃŽ ¬Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (kratos), â€Å"rule, strength† in the middle of the 5th-4th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens following a popular uprising in 508 BC. In political theory, democracy describes a small number of related forms of government and also a political philosophy. Even though there is no universally accepted definition of ‘democracy’, there are two principles that any definition of democracy includes. The first principle is that all members o f the society have equal access to power and the second one that all the members enjoy universally recognized freedoms and liberties. There are several varieties of democracy some of which provide better representation and more freedoms for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not carefully legislated to avoid an uneven distribution of political power with balances such as the separation of powers, then a branch of the system of rule is able to accumulate power in a way that is harmful to democracy itself. The â€Å"majority rule† is often described as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without responsible government it is possible for the rights of a minority to be abused by the â€Å"tyranny of the majority†. An essential process  in representative democracies are competitive elections, that are fair both substantively and procedurally. Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech and freedom of the press are essential so that citizens are informed and able to vote in their personal interests. Popular sovereignty is common but not a universal motivating philosophy for establishing a democracy. In some countries, democracy is based on the philosophical principle of equal rights. Many people use the term â€Å"democracy† as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may include additional elements such as political pluralism, equality before the law, the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances, due process, civil liberties, human rights, and elements of civil society outside the government. In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a supporting attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant philosophy is parliamentary sovereignty (though in practice judicial independence is generally maintained). In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles are also applicable to private organizations and other groups. Though democracy has its origins in Ancient Greece other cultures have significantly contributed to the evolution of democracy such as Ancient India, Ancient Rome, Europe, and North and South America. Democracy has been called the â€Å"last form of government† and has spread considerably across the globe. Suffrage has been expanded in many jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group), but still remains a controversial issue with regard to disputed territories, areas with significant immigration, and countries that exclude certain demographic groups. The contemporary interpretation of democracy from the political point of view is that it is a system of government in which a country’s political leaders are chosen by the people in regular, free and fair elections. In a democracy, people have a choice between different candidates and parties who want the power to govern. The people can criticize and replace their elected leaders and representatives if they do not perform well. The people are sovereign — they are the highest authority  Ã¢â‚¬â€ and government is based on the will of the people. Elected representatives at the national and local levels must listen to the people and be responsive to their needs. That is why democracy depends upon a literate, knowledgeable citizenry whose access to information enables it to participate as fully as possible in the public life of their society and to criticize unwise or tyrannical government officials or policies. Citizens and their elected representatives recognize that democracy depends upon the widest possible access to uncensored ideas, data, and opinions. All people should have the right to form their own opinions and express them individually or in peaceful assemblies. Free societies cr eate a â€Å"marketplace of ideas† where people exchange their views on any number of issues. Although nuances apply to the world’s various democracies, certain principles and practices distinguish democratic government from other forms of government. †¢ Democracy is government in which power and civic responsibility are exercised by all citizens, directly or through their freely elected representatives. †¢ Democracy is a set of principles and practices that protect human freedom; it is the institutionalization of freedom. †¢ Democracy rests upon the principles of majority rule, coupled with individual and minority rights. All democracies, while respecting the will of the majority, zealously protect the fundamental rights of individuals and minority groups. †¢ Democracies guard against all-powerful central governments and decentralize government to regional and local levels, understanding that local government must be as accessible and responsive to the people as possible. †¢ Democracies understand that one of their prime functions is to protect such basic human rights as freedom of speech and religion; the right to equal protection under law; and the opportunity to organize and participate fully in the political, economic, and cultural life of society. †¢ Democracies conduct regular free and fair elections open to all citizens. Elections in a democracy cannot be facades that dictators or a single party hide behind, but authentic competitions for the support of the people. †¢ Democracy subjects governments to the rule of law and ensures that all citizens receive equal protection under the law and that their rights are protected by the legal system. †¢ Democracies are diverse, reflecting each nation’s unique political, social, and cultural life. †¢ Democracies rest upon fundamental principles, not uniform practices. †¢ Citizens in a democracy not only have rights, they have the responsibility to participate in the political system that, in turn, protects their rights and freedoms. †¢ Democratic societies are committed to the values of tolerance, cooperation, and compromise. †¢ Democracies recognize that reaching consensus requires compromise and that it may not always be attainable. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, â€Å"intolerance is itself a form of violence and an obstacle to the growth of a true democratic spirit.† Principles of Democracy People from around the world have identified the basic principles, which must exist in order to have a democratic government. These principles often  become a part of the constitution or bill of rights in a democratic society. Though no two democratic countries are exactly alike, people in democracies support many of the same basic principles and desire the same benefits from their government. The following are examples of the principles referred to as signposts of democracy, which will be used throughout this lesson: 1. Citizen Participation One of the most basic signposts of a democracy is citizen participation in government. Participation is the key role of citizens in democracy. It is not only their right, but it is their duty. Citizen participation may take many forms including standing for election, voting in elections, becoming informed, debating issues, attending community or civic meetings, being members of private voluntary organizations, paying taxes, and even protesting. Participation builds a better democracy. 2. Equality Democratic societies emphasize the principle that all people are equal. Equality means that all individuals are valued equally, have equal opportunities, and may not be discriminated against because of their race, religion, ethnic group, gender or sexual orientation. In a democracy, individuals and groups still maintain their right to have different cultures, personalities, languages and beliefs. 3. Political Tolerance Democratic societies are politically tolerant. This means that while the majority of the people rule in a democracy, the rights of the minority must be protected. People who are not in power must be allowed to organize and speak out. Minorities are sometimes referred to as the opposition because they may have ideas which are different from the majority. Individual citizens must also learn to be tolerant of each other. A democratic society  is often composed of people from different cultures, racial, religious and ethnic groups who have viewpoints different from the majority of the population. A democratic society is enriched by diversity. If the majority deny rights to and destroy their opposition, then they also destroy democracy. One goal of democracy is to make the best possible decision for the society. To achieve this, respect for all people and their points of view is needed. Decisions are more likely to be accepted, even by those who oppose them, if all citizens have been allowed to discuss, debate and question them. 4. Accountability As George Washington said â€Å"Government is not reason, it is not eloquence,it is a force! Like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a fearful master; never for a moment should it be left to irresponsible action.† In a democracy, elected and appointed officials have to be accountable to the people. They are responsible for their actions. Officials must make decisions and perform their duties according to the will and wishes of the people, not for themselves. Government accountability means that public officials – elected and un-elected – have an obligation to explain their decisions and actions to the citizens. Government accountability is achieved through the use of a variety of mechanisms – political, legal, and administrative – designed to prevent corruption and ensure that public officials remain answerable and accessible to the people they serve. In the absence of such mechanisms, corruption may thrive. The primary political accountability mechanism is free and fair elections. Fixed-terms of office and elections force elected officials to account for their performance and provide opportunities for challengers to offer citizens alternative policy choices. If voters are not satisfied with the performance of an official, they may vote them out of office when their terms expire. The degree to which public officials are politically accountable is a function of whether they occupy an elected versus appointed position, how often they are up for reelection, and how many terms they can serve. Legal accountability mechanisms include the whole legal framework – constitutions, legislative acts, decrees, rules, codes, and other legal instruments that proscribe actions that public officials can  and cannot take and how citizens may take action against those officials whose conduct is considered unsatisfactory. An independent judiciary is an essential requirement for the success of legal accountability, serving as a venue where citizens bring claims against the government. Legal accountability mechanisms include: †¢ Ethics statutes and codes of conduct for public officials, outlining unacceptable practices †¢ Conflict of interest and financial disclosure laws, requiring public officials to divulge the source of their income and assets so that citizens may judge whether the actions of those officials are likely to be influenced improperly by financial interests †¢ â€Å"Sunshine† laws, providing the press and the public access to government records and meetings †¢ Citizen participation requirements, dictating that certain government Judicial review, providing courts the power to review the decisions and actions of public officials and agencies. Administrative accountability mechanisms include offices within agencies or ministries and practices within administrative processes designed to ensure that the decisions and actions of public officials account for the interest of the citizens. Administrative accountability mechanisms include: †¢ Ombudsmen, responsible for hearing and addressing citizen complaints; †¢ Independent auditors who scrutinize the use of public funds for signs of misuse; †¢ Administrative courts, that hear citizens’ complaints about agency decisions; †¢ Ethics rules protecting so-called whistleblowers – those within government who speak out about corruption or abuse of official authority – from reprisals. 5. Transparency For government to be accountable the people must be aware of what is happening in the country. This is referred to as transparency in government. A transparent government holds public meetings and allows citizens to attend. In a democracy, the press and the people are able to get information about what decisions are being made, by whom and why. 6. Regular, Free and Fair Elections One way citizens of the country express their will is by electing officials to represent them in government. Democracy insists that these elected officials are chosen and peacefully removed from office in a free and fair manner. Intimidation, corruption and threats to citizens during or before an election are against the principles of democracy. In a democracy, elections are held regularly every so many years. Participation in elections should not be based on a citizen’s wealth. For free and fair elections to occur, most adult citizens should have the right to stand for government office. Additionally, obstacles should not exist which make it difficult for people to vote. Free and fair elections allow people living in a representative democracy to determine the political makeup and future policy direction of their nation’s government. Free and fair elections increase the likelihood of a peaceful transfer of power. They help to ensure that losing candidates will accept the validity of the election’s results and cede power to the new government. Elections alone do not assure democracy since dictators can use the resources of the state to tamper with the election process. Free and fair elections require: †¢ Universal suffrage for all eligible men and women to vote – democracies do not restrict this right from minorities, the disabled, or give it only to those who are literate or who own property. †¢ Freedom to register as a voter or run for public office. †¢ Freedom of speech for candidates and political parties – democracies do not restrict candidates or political parties from criticizing the performance of the incumbent. †¢ Numerous opportunities for the electorate to receive objective information from a free press. †¢ Freedom to assemble for political rallies and campaigns. †¢ Rules that require party representatives to maintain a distance from polling places on election day – election officials, volunteer poll workers, and international monitors may assist voters with the voting  process but not the voting choice. †¢ An impartial or balanced system of conducting elections and verifying election results – trained election officials must either be politically independent or those overseeing elections should be representative of the parties in the election. †¢ Accessible polling places, private voting space, secure ballot boxes, and transparent ballot counting. †¢ Secret ballots – voting by secret ballot ensures that an individual’s choice of party or candidate cannot be used against him or her. †¢ Legal prohibitions against election fraud – enforceable laws must exist to prevent vote tampering (e.g. double counting, ghost voting). †¢ Recount and contestation procedures – legal mechanisms and processes to review election processes must be established to ensure that elections were conducted properly. 7. Economic Freedom People in a democracy must have some form of economic freedom. This means that the government allows some private ownership of property and businesses, and that the people are allowed to choose their own work and labor unions. The role the government should play in the economy is open to debate, but it is generally accepted that free markets should exist in a democracy and the state should not totally control the economy. Some argue that the state should play a stronger role in countries where great inequality of wealth exists due to past discrimination or other unfair practices. 8. Control of the Abuse of Power Democratic societies try to prevent any elected official or group of people from misusing or abusing their power. One of the most common abuses of power is corruption. Corruption occurs when government officials use public funds for their own benefit or exercise power in an illegal manner. Various methods have been used in different countries to protect against these abuses. Frequently the government is structured to limit the powers of the branches of government: to have independent courts and agencies with power to act against any illegal action by an elected official or branch of  government; to allow for citizen participation and elections; and to check for police abuse of power. 9. Accepting the Results of Elections In democratic elections, there are winners and losers. Often the losers in an election believe so strongly that their party or candidate is the best one, that they refuse to accept the results of the election. This is against democratic principles. The consequences of not accepting the result of an election may be a government that is ineffective and cannot make decisions. It may even result in violence which is also against democracy. 10. Human Rights All democracies strive to respect and protect the human rights of citizens. Human rights mean those values that reflect respect for human life and human dignity. Democracy emphasizes the value of every human being. Examples of human rights include freedom of expression, freedom of association, freedom of assembly, the right to equality and the right to education. All human beings are born with inalienable rights. These human rights empower people to pursue lives of dignity – thus, no government can bestow them but all governments should protect them. Freedom, built on a foundation of justice, tolerance, dignity, and respect – regardless of ethnicity, religion, political association, or social standing – allows people to pursue these fundamental rights. Whereas dictatorships deny human rights, free societies continually strive to attain them. Human rights are interdependent and indivisible; they encompass myriad facets of human existence including social, political, and economic issues. Among the most commonly accepted are: †¢ All people should have the right to express their ideas and opinions. †¢ All people should have the right to participate in government. Governments should create laws that protect human rights while justice systems enforce those laws equally among the population. †¢ Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention, and torture – whether one is an opponent of the  ruling political party, an ethnic minority, or even a common criminal – is a basic human right. A professional police force respects all citizens as it enforces the laws of the nation. †¢ In ethnically diverse nations, religious and ethnic minorities should be free to use their language and maintain their traditions without fear of recrimination from the majority population. Governments should recognize the rights of minorities while respecting the will of the majority. †¢ All people should have the opportunity to work, earn a living, and support their families. †¢ Children deserve special protection. They should receive at least an elementary education, proper nutrition, and healthcare. To maintain human rights, citizens in any free society need to be vigilant. Citizen responsibility – through a variety of participatory activities – ensures that government remains accountable to the people. The family of free nations is committed to work toward protection of human rights. They formalize their commitment through a number of international treaties and covenants on human rights. 11. Multi-Party Systems In order to have a multi-party system, more than one political party must participate in elections and play a role in government. A multi-party system allows for opposition to the party, which wins the election. This helps provide the government with different viewpoints on issues. Additionally, a multi-party system provides voters with a choice of candidates, parties and policies to vote for. Historically, when a country only has one party, the result has been a dictatorship. To preserve and protect individual rights and freedoms, a democratic people must work together to shape the government of their choosing. And the principal way of doing that is through political parties. Political parties are voluntary organizations that link the people and their government. Parties recruit candidates and campaign to elect them to public office, and they mobilize people to participate in selecting government leaders. The majority party (or the party elected to control the offices of government) seeks to enact into law a number of different policies and programs. Parties of the opposition are free to criticize the majority party’s policy ideas and offer their own proposals. Political  parties provide a way for citizens to hold elected party officials accountable for their actions in government. Democratic political parties have faith in the principles of democracy so that they recognize and respect the authority of the elected government even when their party leaders are not in power. Like any democracy, members of various political parties reflect the diversity of the cultures in which they arise. Some are small and built around a set of political beliefs. Others are organized around economic interests, or shared history. Still others are loose alliances of different citizens who may only come together at election time. All democratic political parties, whether they are small movements or large national coalitions, share the values of compromise and tolerance. They know that only through broad alliances and cooperation with other political parties and organizations can they provide the leadership and common vision that will win the support of the people of the nation. Democratic parties recognize that political views are fluid and changeable, and that consensus can often arise out of the clash of ideas and values in peaceful, free, and public debate. The concept of the loyal opposition is central to any democracy. It means that all sides in political debate – however deep their differences – share the fundamental democratic values of freedom of speech and faith, and equal protection under law. Parties that lose elections step into the role of opposition – confident that the political system will continue to protect their right to organize and speak out. In time, their party will have a chance to campaign again for its ideas, and the votes of the people. In a democracy, the struggle between political parties is not a fight for survival, but a competition to serve the people. 12. The Rule of Law In a democracy no one is above the law, not even a king or an elected President. This is called the rule of law. It means that everyone must obey the law and be held accountable if they violate it. Democracy also insists that the law be equally, fairly and consistently enforced. This is sometimes referred to as â€Å"due process of law.† For much of human history, rulers and law were synonymous – law was simply the will of the ruler. A first step away from such tyranny was the notion of rule by law, including the notion  that even a ruler is under the law and should rule by virtue of legal means. Democracies went further by establishing the rule of law. Although no society or government system is problem-free, rule of law protects fundamental political, social, and economic rights and reminds us that tyranny and lawlessness are not the only alternatives. Rule of law means that no individual, president or private citizen, stands above law. Democratic governments exercise authority by way of law and are themselves subject to law’s constraints. Laws should express the will of the people, not the whims of kings, dictators, military officials, religious leaders, or self-appointed political parties. Citizens in democracies are willing to obey the laws of their society, then, because they are submitting to their own rules and regulations. Justice is best achieved when the laws are established by the very people who must obey them. Under the rule of law, a system of strong, independent courts should have the power and authority, resources, and the prestige to hold government officials, even top leaders, accountable to the nation’s laws and regulations. For this reason, judges should be well trained, professional, independent, and impartial. To serve their necessary role in the legal and political system, judges must be committed to the principles of democracy. The laws of a democracy may have many sources: written constitutions; statutes and regulations; religious and ethical teachings; and cultural traditions and practices. Regardless of origin the law should enshrine certain provisions to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens: Under the requirement of equal protection under the law, the law may not be uniquely applicable to any single individual or group. Citizens must be secure from arbitrary arrest and unreasonable search of their homes or the seizure of their personal property. Citizens charged with crimes are entitled to a speedy and public trial, along with the opportunity to confront and question their accusers. If convicted, they may not be subjected to cruel or unusual punishment. Citizens cannot be forced to testify against themselves. This principle protects citizens from coercion, abuse, or torture and greatly reduces the temptation of police to employ such measures. 13. Bill of Rights Many democratic countries also choose to have a bill of rights to protect people against abuse of power. A bill of rights is a list of rights and freedoms guaranteed to all people in the country. When a bill of rights becomes part of a country’s constitution, the courts have the power to enforce these rights. A bill of rights limits the power of government and may also impose duties on individuals and organizations. The role of the Non-governmental Organizations In democracies, ordinary citizens may organize independent groups that serve the needs of the community or nation they live in and complement, supplement, or even challenge the work of the government. Such organizations are often called nongovernmental organizations, or NGOs, because they are not an extension of the government’s offices. NGOs allow citizens to improve their society by advocating, educating, and mobilizing attention around major public issues and monitoring the conduct of government and private enterprise. NGOs enable citizens from different backgrounds to learn to work together and build the skills, relationships, and trust necessary for good government. NGOs serve a great variety of citizen interests. They may act as social service providers, advocates for the environment or for living standards, work standards, or as the catalysts for democratic change. NGOs often represent the interests of those citizens who might otherwise be left out of national policy de bates. They open the public discourse to people of all economic and social classes and to women and minorities. Funding for NGOs may come from individual private donations, private trusts and philanthropies, corporations, religious institutions, international institutions, other NGOs, sales of goods and services, and even governments. Governments and NGOs frequently work as partners. NGOs may provide local and regional expertise and personnel on the ground for implementation of government-funded projects. NGOs may be politically unaffiliated, or they may be based on partisan ideals and seek to advance a particular cause or set of causes in the public interest. In either model the key point is that NGOs should operate under minimal political control of states. NGOs develop local and international programs in virtually all areas that contribute to the promotion of the principles of democracy, including: †¢ Human rights  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ by promoting international standards and monitoring for violations and abuses. †¢ Rule of law – through low-cost or free legal aid, educating all citizens regarding their rights, and advocating for legal reforms. †¢ Women’s participation – by preparing them for political participation and protecting them from socioeconomic discrimination. †¢ Civic education – through education programs focusing on the role of the citizen in a democratic and diverse society. †¢ A free press – by promoting independent media, training journalists, and setting standards for ethical journalism. †¢ Political party development – through election monitoring by trained domestic observers and nonpartisan voter registration drives. †¢ Government accountability †“ by conducting policy analysis and serving as watchdogs over governmental actions. Democracy in the EU â€Å"The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail. â€Å" These are universal values and not the values of the Europeans alone. Many countries in the world are recognising and implementing these values or at least have written them down in one or the other form. In order to obtain the objectives of the Union based on the afore-mentioned values, the European Union needs certain powers conferred in a legal framework. It is foreseen that these powers must be exercised using the Community method and specific instruments within a single institutional framework. But through the implementation of these universal values, the European Union has become already a success story that is making membership to the Union so very attractive to its neighbours and an example for other regions in the world= More citizens in Europe live in countries with competitive elections, political freedoms and respect for human rights than ever before. Part of this success story can be attributed – undeniably – to the process of European integration. Paradoxically, however, the European Union also finds itself increasingly the subject of general cynicism and dissatisfaction among its citizenry. Therefore, a better understanding of democracy has become vital at all levels of government, and in particular regarding the future of the EU itself. Proposals for the further democratisation of EU decision-making can be pieced together from at least the following four different dimensions of choice: Intergovernmental vs Supranational Under intergovernmental approaches, the EU is democratised through the elected institutions of its member states. In the contemporary EU, for example, each member country has to ratify any change to EU Treaties according to the democratic mechanism of its choice, with referendums being used in some cases and national parliamentary votes in others. In addition, most important decisions have to be taken by the Council of Ministers on which all national governments are represented. Even with majority voting, this allows national parliaments scope to influence the development of EU policy and hold their governments responsible for their behaviour at Union level . They can review the negotiating positions of their governments before meetings of the Council of Ministers. They can scrutinise draft legislation, which has to be circulated to each national parliament in its own language at least six weeks before it is voted in the Council. They also have important discretion in deciding how EU acquis is to be transposed into national law, since directives only require member states to achieve certain results, without specifying the methods to be employed. Under supranational approaches, entirely new democratic institutions are established at the European level. They are purpose-made for the EU’s political system, and they operate with at least some consistency across the Union as whole. So, for example, the European Parliament is directly elected by all adult citizens of the EU. Its powers, are directed to making law for the Union as a whole, and at scrutinising, criticising and controlling the overall performance of Commission and Council in their role as the EU’s double-headed executive. In brief, it has the power to: †¢ Approve or reject the member states’ choice of Commission and Commission President †¢ Dismiss the Commission on a double majority (two-thirds of votes cast, provided that those voting for a censure comprise more than half of the Parliament’s membership). The resignation of the Santer Commision in March 1999 undermined the argument that this was unlikely ever to happen. †¢ Reject legislation in some areas (Co-decision) and amend it in others (Cooperation). The increasing use of the former means that the EP approaches bicameral status with the Council in a political system where rule-making is, arguably, the main activity. Even the latter allows the EP to structure the choices that are subsequently available to the Council. As the previous examples imply, the EU currently mixes and matches intergovernmental and supranational approaches to democratic politics. Consensus vs Majoritarian Democracy Majoritarian democracy is where decisions can be taken by a bare majority of the public or its representatives. Its proponents argue that any alternative amounts to minority rule. Consensus democracy is where the aim is to align policies with the preferences of the greatest number of citizens or their representatives, rather than with those of a simple majority. Its defenders argue that any alternative allows minorities to be excluded and is not, therefore, rule by the people as a whole. Amongst examples of consensus democracy are the following: †¢ Supermajoritarian decision-rules: these require decisions to be approved by more than 50 per cent of representatives. At present the EU employs supermajorities twice over, in both the Council and the EP. Majority voting in the Council requires 71 per cent of the weighted votes of member states. Most powers of the EP can only be exercised on an absolute majority of its membership. Given normal rates of absenteeism this effectively means that a majority of around two-thirds is usually needed in the EP, as well as the Council of Ministers. †¢ Federal systems: these parcel decision-making out between layers of government. It is rare for the EU to be the only body with powers in an issue area. It normally shares jurisdiction with national and sub-national authorities with which it has to co-ordinate its activities. †¢ Consociational systems: these guarantee the participation of all main cultural units in the most important decisions of a political system. In the EU, for example, all governments nominate at least one Commissioner; all member states have a seat on the Council and the opportunity to hold its rotating Presidency for a period of six months; both Council and Parliament over-represent smaller member states in a manner that underlines the principle that it is national communities — and not just citizens — that are units of value in the EU’s political system; and even the Governing Council of the European Central Bank works on the principle ‘one national central bank, one vote’. Direct vs Indirect Democracy Direct democracy is where the people itself takes major decisions of government. The alternative is that they only exercise public control indirectly through appointed representatives. As will be seen below, this distinction is mainly relevant to prescriptions for the democratisation of the EU, rather than to its current practice. Strategic vs Communicative Democracy Strategic models of democracy presuppose that actors have clear and fixed views of their interests. The main goal of democratic institutions is then to find the most efficient means of aggregating the preferences of individuals into collective actions, albeit subject to various standards of fairness. Communicative models of democracy hold that preferences also need to be debated within the political system, either because they are not fully formed prior to a process of discussion, or because group action is so very different from individual action, both actually and morally. A big question for the EU is whether it can develop a public sphere that all citizens can access as equals, and through the medium of which all points of view can be debated and compared. Connecting European citizens to one another — and to EU institutions — raises problems of language, media, party systems and the associational structure of society, almost all of which are presently organised to support national forms of democracy, rather than a European equivalent. The future of a strong European Union with 27 member states and more will only be possible if rules are implemented which make decisions more democratic, more transparent and thus more efficient. A good and democratic society in the European context is a society which is open to reforms or is able to become a better society – I.e. an active civil society. The European Civil Society can give a new direction to politics. Politicians will then follow. Only a European Civil Society which is better informed about European values, objectives and challenges will give Europe a new impetus to the further democratic development of Europe.

The NYU scholarship on public health graduate program

I am pleased to apply for the NYU scholarship on public health graduate program. Since learning is a continuous lifetime process, I always wanted to gain knowledge of something innovative that will make me a better, rational and worthy person.To complement with the dynamic changes of society and provide the high-end demands of daily life, every individual who thirsts for knowledge of information needs further studies in order to sustain such changes and demands. I deem that I will learn about the world’s philosophies and applications in adaptation of its very nature and its elements in connection to International Business and Management geared towards health care.My career objectives in taking up advance study in this field are to become a competent and knowledgeable person when it comes to governance and to learn more for the purpose of service. With the learning experiences that I will acquire in the University, I will be able to materialize all my intentions in serving othe r people especially those who are in need.I believe that my training and experiences have prepared me for this kind of task since I consider myself result-oriented with a strong entrepreneurship background. My passion for healthcare management has led me towards the publication of a self-motivational weight-loss book called, â€Å"Kimchi Diet.†Together with these skills, I have further honed my knowledge in the area of driving business process, qualitative and quantitative market research and customer service improvements. As a Hospital Strategic Planner, I have achieved significant results related to promoting the growth of the group to where I belong, developing innovative curriculum for effective new staff training thereby increasing overall client volume.In the same vein, I have incorporated my skills in designing and implementing E-commerce sites and web portals in HR communication when I worked at The Gillette Company in Boston Massachusetts. While there, I developed Co ntent Management System for various web projects within the company.I am positive that the innate leadership and powerful drive for service within me will be developed while I am in the institution. I bequeath my humblest leadership, dedication and school spirit for the quest of knowledge. With the acquired knowledge I will have, I am certain to elevate and make better changes in human life not only in the campus but in the community where I belong and intend to serve. My optimism will help bring understanding and wisdom to the all people who need my assistance and service.I want to extend my help to other students in integrating their interests in global, regional and current issues. Through my own dealings of life over the years and a handful of experiences in and out of the four-corners of the classroom, I have grown to be a more responsible and mature person.Indeed, acquiring training in Public Heath Graduate Program will be the first step that I need to take to be able to accom plish my goals. I believe this program will help eager and zealous students like me with its curriculum possessing local and international focus and commitment for excellence. The program is what I need to develop a fuller understanding about the dynamic nature of public health.

Database and Data Warehouse - 2998 Words

I. Introduction â€Å"Everything has changed, except our way of thinking.† - Albert Einstein Data are a vital organizational resource that needs to be managed like other important business assets. Today’s business enterprises cannot survive or succeed without quality data about their internal operations and external environment. This growth drives corporations to analyze every bit of information that is extracted from huge data warehouses for competitive advantage. This has turned the data storage and management function into a key strategic role of information age. I. Background 1. Evolution of Data Systems The demand for information has rise in every organization. Organizations have steadily become global and widespread. Organizations†¦show more content†¦Database Development Database development involves data planning and database design activities. Data models that support business processes are used to develop databases that meet the information needs of the users. 8. Importance of Database Vulnerability Assessment Many organizations rely on database vulnerability assessments as part of their information security strategies to ensure data is protected and to guard against information theft that could expose a company to liability. A database vulnerability assessment hunts for weaknesses in databases and searches for anything out of the ordinary, allowing organizations to act before they’re subjected to a devastating attack. 9. Database Components By Tools i. Oracle Oracle Database 11g Standard Edition is optimized for deployment in midsized business environments. It is supported by Windows, Linux and Unix. ii. MySQL The MySQL database has become the worlds most popular open source database because of its consistent fast performance, high reliability and ease of use. MySQL runs on more than 20 platforms including Linux, Windows, OS/X, HP-UX, AIX, Netware, giving you the kind of flexibility that puts you in control. 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