Core Competencies

1. Characterize the accompanying: Cash Cow-a business or item which produces a durable, reliable progression of money. Canine an item with low piece of the overall industry in a moderate developing business sector and accordingly neither creates more expends a lot of money. Star-items that are in high development markets with a generally high portion of that showcase. They will in general create high measures of salary. Question Mark-developing quickly and in this manner devours a lot of money but since they have low markets shares they don't create a lot of money 2. What are center capabilities? Center skills are basic capacities to a business accomplishing serious advantage.The beginning stage for breaking down center capabilities is perceiving that opposition between organizations is as much a race for ability dominance for what it's worth for showcase position and market power. Senior administration can't concentrate on all exercises of a business and the abilities required to em brace them. So the objective is for the board to concentrate consideration on abilities that truly influence upper hand. 4 Potential wellsprings of center capabilities * Distribution * Marketing * Management * Manufacturing 4 rules used to assess center abilities * Valuable * Rare * Costly to mimic * Non substitutable 3.What should a review of assets incorporate? The assets accessible to a business whether it be claimed or gotten through associations, joint endeavors or basically providers course of action with different organizations. The appraisal of the quality and shortcoming of an association related to an evaluation of chances and dangers. It ought to have the key achievement factors for the business sectors and ventures being referred to and the practically identical qualities and shortcomings of contenders for similar clients. 4. What are the key alternatives for contending in a Mature Industry? * Prune minimal items and models * Emphasize advancement in the worth chain Stro ng spotlight on cost decrease * Increase deals to introduce clients * Purchase rivals at deal costs * Expand globally * Build new, increasingly adaptable serious abilities 5. Characterize the Value System The Value System is the arrangement of associated circumstances inside a business which both straightforwardly or in a roundabout way increases the value of the client and at last produces a net money inflow. This likewise gives a key connection between serious procedure and investor esteem. Despite the fact that the worth framework looks to some extent like Porter’s esteem chain, the last is maybe less adaptable and less effectively custom fitted to the assortment of the cutting edge business.

The Difference Between A Club And A Gang Essays - Free Essays

The Difference Between A Club And A Gang Essays - Free Essays The Difference Between a Club and a Gang The contrasts between a club and a posse, are very unmistakable, yet it is the connotational contrasts between these two words which recognizes one from the other. The New Lexicon Webster's Dictionary of the English Language characterizes a club as; ...an relationship of individuals with some normal intrigue who meet periodically... It characterizes a posse as ...a number of men or young men banding together, esp. lawlessly... This definition is generally inclined toward applying to male youth, and cliché hoodlums, from the Mafia to road crooks. People who frequently have an antagonistic demeanor toward youth see posses. Frequently people structure groups out of dread and for the assurance of their individuals whether they are the Bloods and Crips of Los Angeles or the Sharks and the Jets of West Side Story. Gangs may not have a lot of formal composed guidelines, yet every one of them have their own arrangements of customs or conditions. Packs could possibly be encouraged in a part of higher and lower individuals, mirroring a military model. Packs frequently have an inexactly characterized define of objectives, and are regularly engaged with reprobate exercises. A socially endorsed type of a group is a club. Americans for the most part see clubs as character building authority openings; while, people pigeonhole into groups are oppressed as hoodlums. Clubs are framed in light of productive objectives, for example, making it simpler for its individuals to discover parts for a specific brand of car. Financial class, scholastic accomplishment, or saw jobs in the public arena for its individuals all have an influence in the particular treatment given to a gathering which a general public considers a club as opposed to a group. For example, portions of the open foreseen that cruiser riders would cause a huge ascent in wrongdoing inside the Hollister territory during the bike rally. This prompted a reactionary reaction from nearby law specialists. The occasion, in contrast to past events, finished without significant episode. Maybe now individuals are progressively able to see motorcyclists as a club rather than a posse. Furthermore, common laborer s individuals are bound to be captured, and in this manner, in gatherings and when pigeonholed into groups might be relied upon to perpetrate more wrongdoings or be criminal; the unavoidable cycle proceeds. Morgan Glines October 3, 1996 English AP

The Biography of the Psychologist John Bowlby

The Biography of the Psychologist John Bowlby History and Biographies Print Biography of Psychologist John Bowlby The Founder of Attachment Theory By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on September 16, 2019 Erin Lester/Cultura Exclusive/Getty Images More in Psychology History and Biographies Psychotherapy Basics Student Resources Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming In This Article Table of Contents Expand Known For Early Life Career Attachment Theory Contributions to the Field of Psychology Key Publications View All Back To Top John Bowlby (February 27, 1907 - September 2, 1990) was a British psychologist and psychoanalyst who believed that early childhood attachments played a critical role in later development and mental functioning. His work, along with the work of psychologist Mary Ainsworth, contributed to the development of attachment theory.?? Bowlby believed that children are born with a biologically-programmed tendency to seek and remain close to attachment figures. This provides nurturance and comfort, but it also aids in the child’s survival. Sticking close to a caregiver ensures that the child’s needs are met and that he or she is protected from dangers in the environment. Known For Being the originator of attachment theoryResearching child developmentInfluencing modern-day psychology, education, child care, and parenting Early Life Edward John Mostyn Bowlby was born in London to an upper-middle-class family. Believing that too much parental affection and attention would spoil a child, his parents spent only a small amount of time with him each day. At the age of seven, he was sent to boarding school, which he would later describe as a traumatic experience. Bowlby went on to attend Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied psychology and spent time working with delinquent children. After graduating from Cambridge, Bowlby volunteered at a school to gain experience and consider his career goals. His work at the school with two maladjusted children set the course of his future and inspired him to become a child psychiatrist. He then studied medicine at University College Hospital, followed by studying psychiatry at Maudsley Hospital. During this time, Bowlby also studied at the British Psychoanalytic Institute and was initially influenced by the work of Melanie Klein, a psychologist who created the play therapy technique. He eventually became dissatisfied with Klein’s approach, believing that it focused too much on children’s fantasies and not enough on events in the environment, including the influence of parents and caregivers. After becoming a psychoanalyst in 1937, he served in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War II. In 1938, he married a woman named Ursula Longstaff and together they had four children. Once the war was over, Bowlby became Director of the Tavistock Clinic, and in 1950 he became a mental health consultant to the World Health Organization (WHO). Career and Theory Bowlby’s early work with children led him to develop a strong interest in the subject of child development. He became particularly interested in how separation from caregivers impacted children.?? After studying the subject for some time, he began to develop his ideas on the importance of attachment on child development. In 1949, WHO commissioned Bowlby to write a report on the mental health of homeless children in Europe. In 1951, the resulting work Maternal Care and Mental Health was published. In it, he wrote, “…the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment.” After the publication of the influential report, Bowlby continued to develop his attachment theory. Bowlby drew on a variety of subjects,?? including cognitive science, developmental psychology, evolutionary biology, and ethology (the science of animal behavior). His resulting theory suggested that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. Bowlby had trained as a psychoanalyst and, much like Sigmund Freud, believed that the earliest experiences in life have a lasting impact on development. According to Bowlby, attachment also serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the childs chances of survival. He suggested that both mothers and infants had evolved to develop an innate need for proximity. By maintaining this closeness, infants are more likely to receive the care and protection that they need to ensure their survival. Bowlby was also influenced by the work of Konrad Lorenz, a zoologist and ethologist who demonstrated that attachment was both innate and aided in survival. In Lorenz’s well-known 1935 study on imprinting, he was able to show that young geese would imprint on attachment figures in the environment within a certain critical period after hatching. Lorenz was even able to get newly-hatched geese to imprint on him and view him as a “mother” figure. This revealed that not only is attachment innate but that there is also a critical period during which the formation of attachment relationships is possible. Lorenz’s research found that after a certain period (approximately 32 hours for geese), an attachment was not likely to occur. The central theme of Bowlby’s attachment theory is that mothers who are available and responsive to their infants needs establish a sense of security. The baby knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to feel safe to explore the world. Attachment Theory Bowlby defined attachment as a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings. His ethological theory of attachment suggests that infants have an innate need to form an attachment bond with a caregiver. This is an evolved response that increases a childs chances of survival; babies are born with a number of behaviors, such as crying and cooing, and caregivers are biologically programmed to respond to these signals and attend to the babys needs. While mothers are often associated with this role as primary caregivers and attachment figures, Bowlby did believe that infants could form such bonds with others. The formation of the attachment bond offers comfort, security, and nourishment, but Bowlby noted that feeding was not the basis or purpose of this attachment, allowing bonds to be formed with fathers and other significant caregivers. Bowlby also suggested that attachment forms in a series of stages: During the first part of the pre-attachment phase, babies recognize their primary caregiver but do not yet have an attachment. Their crying and fussing draw the attention and care of the parent, which is rewarding to both the child and the caregiver. As this stage progresses through about three months, infants begin to recognize the parent more and develop a sense of trust.During the indiscriminate attachment phase, infants show a distinct preference for the primary caregivers, as well as certain secondary caregivers, in their lives.During the discriminate attachment period, children form a strong attachment to one individual and will experience separation distress and anxiety when parted from that person.Finally, during the multiple attachment phases, children begin to develop strong attachments to people beyond the primary caregivers. Contributions to Psychology John Bowlby’s research on attachment and child development left a lasting impression on psychology, education, child care, and parenting. Researchers extended his research to develop clinical treatment techniques and prevention strategies.?? His work also influenced other eminent psychologists, including his colleague Mary Ainsworth, who also made significant contributions to attachment theory by expanding on Bowlbys research to develop a method for observing a childs attachment to a caregiver. In a 2002 survey of psychologists published in the Review of General Psychology, Bowlby was ranked as the 49th most frequently cited psychologist of the 20th century. Key Publications Bowlby, J. (1946). Maternal Care and Mental Health. Geneva: World Health Organization. Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the childs tie to his mother. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 39, 1-23. Bowlby, J. (1968). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 2: Separation, Anxiety, and Anger. London: Penguin Books. Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 3: Loss: Sadness and Depression. New York: Basic Books.

A Reading Of Micheaux s Within Our Gates - 1418 Words

Ryan Baxter Ben Strassfeld Professor Daniel Herbert Screen Arts Cultures 352 14 October 2015 A Reading of Micheaux’s Within Our Gates (1920) In 1920, pioneering African American film director Oscar Micheaux released his second picture, Within Out Gates. The film is a silent drama that revolves around a young professional woman, Sylvia Landry, her quest to fund an opening rural school for black children, and her past experience of violent racism in the South. It is a work largely concerned with African Americans as being at a sort of impasse in history and, furthermore, with the positing of a strong ideal of upward social mobility for black citizens going into the post-war era. In the film’s beginning, Micheaux introduces a†¦show more content†¦Further into the film, it becomes apparent that they are actually posited as two narratives of African American status in the United States. In the North, Micheaux portrays an African American professional middle class; in the South, he portrays African Americans as largely impoverished, uneducated, and subject to unfair systems of tenancy. In the North, there is a sense of opportunity; in the South, there is one of inferiority and constant struggle. Sylvia, who travels between these two worlds, can be seen as somewhat symbolic of her race at this point in history, or at least Micheaux’s ideal for advancement. She is educated, a professional, and individually capable; her main concern is with â€Å"the eternal struggle of her race and how she could uplift it.† Yet she is, at the same time, haunted by a past of subjugation and violence. In a jarring sequence toward the film’s end, it is revealed through flashback that her adoptive parents were lynched for the murder of their landlord, Gridlestone, a crime actually committed by a white tenant, and intercut with the depiction of this killing is an scene in which the victim’s brother, another white aristocrat, attempts to rape Sylvia in retribution. During this attack, the man realizes that Sylvia is his daughter from a past relationship with a black woman, w hich commentators, J. Ronald Green for one, speculate to be implied as similarly violent or coercive in nature. (Green, 40).

The Arlington National Cemetery By George Washington

I:HISTORY OF ARLINGTON: George Washington’s relation to the Arlington National Cemetery is that his step-grandson, (George Washington Parke Custis), once owned the land. George is related to Mr. Custis by his wife, Martha Washington. Martha had a different affair with George Washington Parke Custis’s grandfather, Daniel Parke Custis, who died July 8, 1757 of most likely a heart attack. Martha Dandridge relates to the Arlington National Cemetery because she is the grandmother of George Washington Parke Custis who owned the Arlington National Cemetery. Dandridge is Martha’s father’s last name. She gained the last names of Daniel Parke Custis and George Washington after she be-wed them. George Washington Parke Custis once was the owner of the†¦show more content†¦His revenge was to embarrass Robert for joining the Confederacy. Meig ruined the property and home, making the area unoccupiable by using the area as burial grounds because of the over stocked cemeteries and high level grounds which made it flood free. We have the Arlington National Cemetery today because of this debut. Civil War burials were in various places; prison, camps, hospitals, the front line, etc. Most deaths were honored depending on the symbolic meaning their body were represented as. Burials were based on religious matters as well as the rank and communal duties, but most important was the personal respect in the in the face of death. In 1874 Custis Lee sued the government to regain the estate of Arlington House, Congress returned it to him in 1883. Only to be sold back to the government for 150,000 dollars. II:TOMB OF THE UNKNOWNS(20TH) CENTURY: At the end of World War 1 four unknowns were exhumed from four World War 1 cemeteries in France, only one was chosen as the â€Å"Unknown Soldier.† The chosen unknown soldier was shipped to the United States aboard the USS Olympia, those remaining soldiers were interred in the Meuse Argonne Cemetery, France. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier was placed at the Arlington National Cemetery because it was the honorary cemetery where people that had served in the United States forces were likely buried. The Tomb is supposed to show respect and honor, especially because we couldn’t identify him asShow MoreRelatedThe Arlington National Cemetery By George Washington1915 Words   |  8 Pagesshows that soldiers will die for their friends because they believe that it is their way to serve their nation. This quote represents what Arlington National Cemetery is about acres and acres of tombs to honor are soldiers. 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He had urged to Kennedy to be careful of what he said because it

Hughes Promotes the African Civilization Essay Free Essays

Still recognized as one of the literary giants of America. Langston Hughes played an of import function as a author and mind of the Harlem Renaissance. This was an artistic motion of African Americans that arose during the 1920s to observe the lives and civilization of Africans in the United States ( â€Å"Langston Hughes† ) . We will write a custom essay sample on Hughes Promotes the African Civilization Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Because most of the African Americans had been brought to the New World as slaves of white Masterss. it was poets and authors like Hughes. an African American adult male. that helped to alter the perceptual experience of African Americans in the heads of the Whites one time bondage had been abolished. Hughes’ verse forms. â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† published in 1926. and â€Å"Negro† published in 1958. hence depict African Americans as ordinary human existences like everybody else. and yet richer in civilization and civilisation than many others. seeing that they have participated in the building of the great â€Å"pyramids. † mentioned in both verse forms ( Hughes. 2007 ; Hughes ) . Hughes was direct and unfastened about the fact that his Hagiographas were meant to elate the conditions facing Africans in the United States ( Hughes. 1923 ) . They had been slaves. so therefore the Whites did non esteem them plenty even after the abolition of bondage. â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† was published five old ages after the Tulsa Riot and during the Harlem Renaissance ( â€Å"Race Riot. Lynchings. and other Forms of Racism in the 1920s† ) . â€Å"Negro. † on the other manus. was published at a clip when racism was considered a bigger job than earlier. In fact. during the 1950s racism was at the head of American idea ( Lewis. 2002 ) . Many conflicts were fought to put inkinesss equal to Whites in the heads of all Americans. Hughes’ part of the fiftiess. his verse form â€Å"Negro. † was merely different to the extent that it was an artist’s part. Countless other Africans were contending on the streets of America to put things right one time and for all. Both verse forms. â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† and â€Å"Negro. † are looks of African American individuality. The first verse form begins therefore: â€Å"I’ve known rivers†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ( Hughes ) . In the 2nd as in the first. although the poet has made clear that the storyteller is a negro – the verse form. â€Å"Negro† begins with the words. â€Å"I am a Negro† ( Hughes. 2007 ) . Because the Whites had been Masterss over African slaves. they were inclined to look down upon Africans. Since the Whites were proprietors of belongings in America and surely richer. the inkinesss longed to be like the Whites. But. Hughes would wish the Africans to experience at place in their ain teguments. With images of rivers every bit expansive as of the Euphrates. the Nile and the Mississippi – the verse form. â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers. † reminds the African of his or her historical roots or the history of the great African peoples who have traveled across all of these rivers adding value to the historical watercourse of civilizations. The verse form has irregular. long lines without beat because it is doing a basic point: the African psyche is every bit deep as any human psyche could be. The African single indulges in deep thought as he travels across antediluvian rivers. What he must brood on is his ain individuality on foreign dirt. Remembering the history of his civilisation. he must maintain in head that life carries on. What’s more. the poet reminds his fellow African that the black race has survived despite all odds ( Hughes ) . Because â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† was published during the extremum of Harlem Renaissance. it refers to depth of the African psyche. given that art is frequently understood as the voice of the psyche and the Harlem Renaissance was all about advancing African art and civilization in the United States. Using soft images such as the Mississippi’s bosom â€Å"turning aureate in the sundown. † the poet uses his accent on rivers to stand as a symbol for the deepness of the African psyche ( Hughes ) . â€Å"Negro. † published during the 1950’s besides references â€Å"depths† ( Hughes. 2007 ) . As in â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers. † the deepnesss mentioned by Hughes in both verse forms most likely refer to the deepness of African knowledge excessively. After all. both verse forms refer to the history of Africans. â€Å"Negro. † with its sentence agreements depicting either what had happened to Africans or what they have done in the history of the African civilisation – besides makes reference of the experiences and/or accomplishments that set Africans apart. for illustration. bondage and vocalizing ( Hughes. 2007 ) . The poet represents all Africans in both his verse form. â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† and â€Å"Negro. † What is more. both poems reference the fact that the Africans were portion of the labour force that built the ancient pyramids. In â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers. † it was the African who â€Å"looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it† ( Hughes ) . In â€Å"Negro. † the pyramid is said to hold arisen under the African manus. implying that the African was greatly skilled even at the clip of ancient pyramid building ( Hughes. 2007 ) . The chief difference between the two verse forms. â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† and â€Å"Negro† is. doubtless. the spirit of hope felt through the first verse form versus the sense of desperation assorted with hope in the 2nd verse form. Hughes must hold composed â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† in a different frame of head wholly. The verse form clearly promotes the African American civilization and art as originating in the deep history of humanity ( Hughes ) . Although â€Å"Negro† makes reference of universe history excessively. it does non needfully advance African American art. apart from its mention to vocalizing. The African American may be considered as more of a labourer or low paid worker than an creative person in â€Å"Negro† ( Hughes. 2007 ) . Possibly the verse form was non written to advance African American art at all. As mentioned antecedently. the 1950s saw the Whites and inkinesss of America contending over the inquiry of equal rights of Africans in about all major countries of province operation. including instruction. There were terrible jobs related to racism during this period of American history. Clearly. inkinesss were being looked down upon. It was in the temper of that hr that Hughes composed â€Å"Negro. † The verse form speaks of the mundaneness of the African person while depicting the good utilizations that Africans have been made of. for illustration. in the building of the â€Å"Woolworth Building† ( Hughes. 2007 ) . â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† is surely non blue or dejecting like â€Å"Negro. † chiefly because it does non do reference of bondage and victimization as the 2nd. After all. Hughes is contending against unfairness toward African Americans in the 1950s. In the 1920s. his cause was wholly different. If â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† had made frequent reference of darkness as does â€Å"Negro. † the Harlem Renaissance could non hold been considered a forerunner of hope ( Hughes. 2007 ) . References Hughes. L. ( 2007. Dec 2 ) . Negro. Retrieved Mar 15. 2009. from hypertext transfer protocol: //amandafa. blogspot. com/2007/12/negro-by-langston-hughes. hypertext markup language. ————– . ( 1926. Jun 23 ) . The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain. The State. Retrieved Mar 15. 2009. from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. hartford-hwp. com/archives/45a/360. hypertext markup language. ————– . The Negro Speaks of Rivers. Retrieved Mar 15. 2009. from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. wmrfh. org/dcrews/index_files/Hughes_The % 20Negro % 20Speaks % 20of % 20Rivers. physician. Langston Hughes. America’s Story from America’s Library. Retrieved Mar 15. 2009. from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. americaslibrary. gov/cgi-bin/page. cgi/aa/hughes. Lewis. C. H. ( 2002 ) . The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement in the fiftiess. Retrieved Mar 15. 2009. from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Colorado. edu/AmStudies/lewis/2010/civil. htm. Race Riot. Lynchings. and other Forms of Racism in the 1920s. Retrieved Mar 15. 2009. from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. premise. edu/ahc/raceriots/default. hypertext markup language. How to cite Hughes Promotes the African Civilization Essay, Essay examples

Penguins Essay Thesis Example For Students

Penguins Essay Thesis Myopic little men in tuxedos, or highly efficientland/water animals? Recent research indicatestheres more to penguins than meets the eye. Ifyouve every wondered what it would be like tobe able to see as clearly under water as you canon land, just ask the nearest penguin.Most aquaticanimals are short-sighted on land. Most terrestrialanimals (and that includes us) are far-sighted underwater. But researchers have discovered thatpenguins can apparently see equally well in bothenvironments, because of the unique structure oftheir eyes. Penguins have to be able to see wellunder water because their diet consists mainly ofplankton, molluscs, crustaceans, and the inevitablefish. Through a special slowing-down of their heartrate theyre able, like many other diving animals, tostay submerged long enough to search out andchase whatever catches their fancy. On dry land,its a different story-or has been up to now. Waddling along on their flat little feet, eyes fixedintently on the ground, penguins appear myopic,inefficient and generally out of place. In fact thereverse is true. During a recent stay on theFalkland Islands, a Canadian researcherdiscovered that penguins are able to recognizeindividuals and navigate the rocky terrain on whichthey live quite well. Long of body and short of leg,they probably poke their heads forward as an aidto balance. And as for looking at the ground,theyre merely-like us-keeping an eye on wheretheyre going. The human eye is adapted for aerialvision, which is why scuba divers-or even you andI in the local swimming pool-must wear goggles ora face mask to re-introduce air in front of our eyesin order to see clearly. Among vertebrates ingeneral, the bird eye is frequently described as themost efficient. Its superior quality, combined withthe fact that a large number of birds-cormorants,pelicans, seagulls, even ducks, as well aspenguins-get their food from water, obvi ouslydeserved research beyond that possible in acontrolled environment such as an aquarium orzoo. Professor Jacob Sivak of the University ofWaterloo and his associate, Professor HowardHowland of Cornell University, had a chance todo that research recently. Their trip had but onepurpose-to study the structure of penguins eyeswhile observing their natural habitat. The FalklandIslands, off the coast of Argentina, offered thisopportunity, being one the few areas outsideAntarctica where penguins can be found in largenumbers. Three of the 16 known species werelocated there: the Gentoo, which live on flat areasright off the beach; the Magellan (also calledJackass), which live in burrows; and theRock-hoppers, which live among the rocks alongthe cliffs. The Rock-hoppers were by far the mostcommon, having a population of well over100,000. The general rule is, the smaller thepenguin, the meaner the temperament, and theresearchers did witness the odd fight. Theirflippers may look pretty useless out of water, butits not smart to play around with a penguin. Helllstand his ground in a face-off and if youre foolishenough to get too close, those flippers can knockyou flat. Dr. Sivak and his associate, however,had little trouble. Rock-hoppers alwayscongregate in fairly tight groups, as a defenseagainst predatory birds such as the skua (a largeseagull that thinks its a hawk), and two moreupright figures in their midst didnt seem to botherthem. Standing as close to their subjects as 0.3m,the scientists used two devices: one, developed byProfessor Howland, to take photographs of thepenguins eyes; the othger, developed by Dr. .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad , .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .postImageUrl , .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad , .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad:hover , .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad:visited , .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad:active { border:0!important; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad:active , .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u917a38c10dfaba0a79b3f97330405cad:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Stc Five Forces Model and Competitive Advantage EssaySivak, to shine a series of concentric circles on thecornea and give a measurement of how reflectionsof objects are altered by curvature of the eye. Despite the fact all the work had to be done atnight-the only time the penguins pupils weredilated enough-the results were worth it. Comparison of the photographs with similarphotos of human eyes, and study of the internalstructure of the eyes of creatures discovered killedby seal lions, proved the scientists theory that thepenguins eyes are the secret of its survival. Ingeneral terms, a penguin eye and a human eye arealmost identical. Both have the same componentsnecessary for vision-a cornea through which lightcan enter; an iris which controls the amount of lightthat enters; and a crystalline lens that focuses thelight onto the back of the eye where a specializedmembrane, the retina, receives it and passes themessage along the optic nerve to the brain forinterpretation. In the penguin eye, hoever, thereare many subtle differences. The cornea, forexample, is markedly flattened compared to ours so much so that it almost resembles awindow-pane. This greatly alters the angle atwhich light can enter the eye and is very importantfor underwater swimming, when light enters theeye obliquely through a medium (water) whose density is quite different to the density of air. Thepenguin iris is controlled by a very powerfulmuscle which is able to drastically alter the shapeof the lens attached to it, depending on whetherthe penguin is in or out of the water. The lens,comparatively larger than ours and differentlyshaped, focuses the light coming through theflattened cornea onto the retinal body at the backof the eye. In this way, the penguin eye adapts towhatever medium it happens to be in at the time. Interestingly, there was no evidence of eyeproblems (apart from one incident of blindnessdue to injury) in the group of penguins studied. Ofcourse penguins dont read, watch TV orencounter any of the numerous irritants weland-bound animals subject ourselves-or aresubjected-to during our lifetime. Both the testingdevices and methods used in this study are easilyadaptable for use with human eyes, paving theway for fast, easy identification of eye problems. Also, the researchers hope that the insights theyvegained into how animals deal with twoenvironments may lead to knowledge of howhumans, in the future, might do likewise.

Heart of Darkness Webquest Essay Example

Heart of Darkness Webquest Paper Catherine Straus Period 6 September 23, 2011 Heart of Darkness Webquest Task 1 a) Scramble for Africa was a process of invasion, occupation, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the New Imperialism period. http://www. pvhs. chico. k12. ca. us/~bsilva/projects/scramble/ b) The purpose of the Berlin Conference was to lay rules to divide Africa without going to war for it. It divided Africa and African leaders werent allowed to make decision for Africa’s outcome. http://wysinger. homestead. com/berlinconference. htmlKing ) Britain d) The Fashoda Crisis was the result of territorial disputes over Africa that had been going on between Britain and France. http://www. pvhs. chico. k12. ca. us/~bsilva/projects/scramble/fashoda. htm Task 2 a) King Leopold ruled Congo from1865 to1909. http://answers. encyclopedia. com/question/did-leopold-ii-rule-belgium-124587. html b) Leopold established an international benevolent committee. It was originally a multi-person , scientific, and humanitarian assembly, and was a single-shareholder development company owned by Leopold. From 1878 to 1884, these organizations tried to establish Belgian influence in the Congo and control the rubber and ivory trade. c) Leopold’s efforts to establish Belgian influence in the Congo were rewarded. d) Leopold promised to suppress the East African slave trade, promote humanitarian policies, guarantee free trade, and encourage missions. However, Leopold prohibited trade in arms, authorized the terms for the employment of native workers, committing them agree for terms of seven years to their employers, and established the Force Publique. ) Rubber inflatable bicycle tubes were invented and the growing popularity of the automobile increased the need for rubber, irritating Leopold’s greed. f) Congolese were stripped of every right and Leopold IIs regime cause about 10 million deaths of the Africans in only 40 years. They were treated as slaves and their wives were raped and held hostage so their husbands would work and give the much profitable rubber in exchange f or their wives’ freedom. Leopold thinks he was taking care of the Africans, when really what he did was rape the country. We will write a custom essay sample on Heart of Darkness Webquest specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Heart of Darkness Webquest specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Heart of Darkness Webquest specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The rubber trade made Leopold one of the richest men in the world and made Belgium flourish, but the suffering of the Congolese was unseen. The EP forced the native Africans to work for seven years, while allows Leopold to torture them even more. Task 3 a) Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, Angola, Zambia, Burundi, and Rwanda border Belgian Congo, or present-day Dominican Republic of the Congo. Central African Republic and Sudan are north of Congo. Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi are east of Congo. Zambia and Angola are south of Congo. And Republic of the Congo is west of Congo. http://www. sheppardsoftware. com/Africa/Africa_GL_1024_768. html b) Boma, Banana, Matadi, Leopoldville, Coquilhatville, Lisala, Stanleyville, Pontierville, Kindu, and Kasongo are the cities along the Congo River. Leopoldville is the Capital of Belgian Congo. African Origin: Boma, Banana, Matadi, Lisala, Kindu, and Kasingo European Origin: Leopoldville, Coquilhatville, Stanleyville, and Pontierville Marlow most likely come from Britain and arrived at Leopoldville. ) Africans were to be cared for and trained as if they were children, d) June 30, 1960 e) Present day: Dominican Republic of the Congo (Congo) Capital: Leopoldville Task 4 a) Conrad was inspired to write Heart of Darkness by his journey down the Congo River. b) He saw how the British we mistreating the Africans. c) Imagery and symbolism describing the ambiguity between good and evil along with imperialism. d) He died from heart attack.

Sociology and the Power of Sanctions in Compliance

Sociology and the Power of Sanctions in Compliance Sanctions, as defined within sociology, are ways of enforcing compliance with social norms. Sanctions are positive when they are used to celebrate conformity and negative when they are used to punish or discourage nonconformity. Either way, the use of sanctions and the outcomes they produce are used to encourage our conformity with social norms. For example, an individual who behaves appropriately in a given setting by being polite, socially engaged, or patient could be sanctioned with social approval. An individual who chooses to behave inappropriately by acting out of turn, saying or doing strange or unkind things, or expressing rudeness or impatience may be sanctioned with disapproval, expulsion, or more severe consequences, depending on the situation. How Sanctions Relate to Social Norms Social norms are expected behaviors that are agreed upon by a social group. Social norms are part of society as a whole (like using money as a tool for exchange) and of smaller groups (like wearing a business suit in a corporate setting). Social norms are thought to be necessary for social cohesion and interaction; without them, we could live in a chaotic, unstable, unpredictable, and noncooperative world. In fact, without them, we might not have a society. Societies, cultures, and groups often use sanctions to enforce compliance with their desired social norms. When an individual conforms- or does not conform- to the social norms, he or she may receive sanctions (consequences). In general, sanctions for conformity are positive while sanctions for nonconformity are negative. They can be informal sanctions such as shunning, humiliation, accolades, or awards to help shape the way individuals and institutions behave. Internal and External Sanctions Sanctions can be internal or external. Internal sanctions are consequences imposed by the individual, based on compliance with social norms. For example, an individual might suffer from embarrassment, shame, or depression as a result of noncompliance and associated exclusion from social groups. Imagine a child who decides to challenge social norms and authorities by stealing a candy bar from a store. Not being caught and without external sanctions, the child may feel miserable from guilt. Rather than eating the candy bar, the child then returns it and confesses guilt. This end result is the work of an internal sanction. External sanctions, on the other hand,  are consequences imposed by others and include things like expulsion from an organization, public humiliation, punishment by parents or elders, and arrest and imprisonment, and more. If a person breaks into and robs a store and is caught, there will be an arrest, an accusation of a crime, a court trial and the likelihood of being found guilty, and maybe jail time. What happens after the person is caught ​is a series of state-based external sanctions.​​​ Formal and Informal Sanctions Sanctions can be formal or informal. Formal sanctions are imposed through formal means by institutions or organizations upon other institutions, organizations, or upon individuals. They can be legal or based on an institutions formal code of rules and ethics. A nation that fails to comply with international law may be sanctioned, meaning that economic opportunities are withheld, assets are  frozen, or trade relationships are ended. Likewise, a student who plagiarizes a written assignment or cheats on a test may be sanctioned by the school with academic probation, suspension, or expulsion. To expand on the former example,  a nation that refuses to comply with an international ban on building nuclear weapons will face economic sanctions from nations that comply with the ban. As a result, the noncompliant country loses income, international status, and opportunities for growth as a result of the sanction. Informal sanctions are imposed by individuals or groups upon other individuals or groups without the use of a formal, institutional system. Scornful looks, shunning, boycotts, and other actions are forms of informal sanctioning. Take the example of a corporation whose products are made in factories in which child labor and abusive practices are rampant. Customers who object to this practice organize a boycott against the corporation. The corporation loses customers, sales, and income as a result of informal sanction.

The Discovery and conquest of the Americas Essay

The Discovery and conquest of the Americas - Essay Example Diaz’s account is written very much in hindsight, at the end of his life. As well as describing what happened , it can also be taken as a biography of Herman Cortes, the leader of the Conquistadors, appointed by the Emperor and Queen of Spain, to conquer new lands, bring back riches, but also to introduce the Christian religion to new peoples. Diaz admired Cortes, but also felt free to state his faults , Cortez having died in 1546, whereas Diaz lived until 1585. He describes his book as being a true account. He would have been aware of other accounts already written and wants to set matters straight. Naturally the conquered people had a rather different point of view, one which Leon-Portillo claims is usually ignored. For this reason he includes accounts from the Aztecs, some written only seven years after the arrival of the Spaniards, and in their own languages. He includes descriptions of terrible slaughter, presumably carried out in the names of the Spanish rulers and for the sake of the Christian religion. This wasn’t war – those celebrating a fiesta were killed from behind for instance ( Leon-Potillo, 1971, page II-321). Cortes’ letters are written to inform the queen of Spain Dona Juana, and her son, the Emperor Charles V, what was going on. They are therefore written in quite formal language, flattering the royals, more so than the other texts considered ( Cortes, 1519, the first letter , page 3), but also from the point of view that the doesn’t know exactly what they already know from other sources. He states his aim as letting them know about the new discoveries, the land, the people, the religious life and local customs. To this he adds the important rider that he also wants to explain how the royals and Spain might benefit from what has been discovered ( Cortes, 1519, pages 3 and 4). His descriptions are rather mixed in that he states that the Spaniards were well received, and then , in the same paragraph, describes how the natives had killed many Spaniards. Also in the letter he informs his sponsors of the actions of others , as of Velazquez, who , in some cases , was acting with out permission, so he is covering himself. The letters were written over a period of several years, and so each one covers a considerable period of time, looking back in some instances over two years, but they are the nearest we are likely to find in that time to topical news reporting, even if biased in its outlook. Also included by Cortes are descriptions of how natives were required to accept the Catholic religion. He justifies his actions by saying that the natives were to be seen as were the people of Jericho in the book

Evaluate WHS management systems Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Evaluate WHS management systems - Assignment Example The sampling at Wollongong store was successful hence the need to implement the program globally. Due to global proposed systems, Austrian Hardware aims at providing safe conditions for workers at work place and to comply legally across jurisdictions. There is need for corporate culture, operations and integration with management systems of Australian Hardware. Australian Hardware is committed to WHS in various ways like, first aid and treatment of injuries for the workers and customers among others as discussed in the report below. Looking at the data on First Aid Incidents, the workers are ill treated by those in management. First, for the first case on 1 July 2012 of a new worker who got an accident by lifting a lawn mower, the worker could not have been re-trained but be given first aid. The employee was new to the organization hence needed to be treated well. Second, on 10 Sep 2012, another new employee was cut but no first aid was given. Initiating safety action meeting by team leader could not help such a new employee at Wollongong. Third, on 24th Oct 2012, it is clear that the organization values customers’ life than those of workers since first aid was offered to the customer. The customer’s falling was accidental and there was no need for training of staff at Melbourne. Fourth, on 1 April 2013, a new staff fall down and treatment was administered thus indicating change in giving first aid to employees at Freemantle. Through safety and work health Act of 2011 which is supported by WHS, the sick workers do not need to be mistreated. Looking at medical treatment injury, a lot need to be done. First, on 1 July 2012, a new staff was injured and treated for a day at Sydney. The treatment was not enough for the worker as he or she missed work for 10 days. There was no need for the meeting as falling was

Economic Impacts of Smuggling in Pakistan

Economic Impacts of Smuggling in Pakistan Smuggling basically refers to the transfer of goods illegally from one place to another. It is an activity which consists of the importation or exportation of goods or living beings by wrong or unlawful means with the objective of evading taxes. It is illegal methods of conducting business and is done secretly. The principle causes of smuggling are greed for wealth ignorance and lack of nationalism or patriotism. X-ray of an abdomen piled up with cocaine       The objective of this report is to look at the economic impacts of smuggling in Pakistan. There are various motivations to smuggle in this country. These include the participation in illegal activities, such as, drug trade, illegal weapons trade, exotic wildlife trade, illegal immigration or illegal emigration, tax evasion, providing contraband to a prison inmate, or the theft of the items being smuggled. The main objectives are: What are the national trends on trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants in Pakistan? What are the main smuggling routes? What is the impact of Pakistans economic issues on trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants? The scope of the research is how can we get awareness about these types of illegal trade of goods in Pakistan, identify key dynamics and provide policy and program recommendations for that. However it is difficult to determine due to lack of reliable data but we can try our level best through discussing about these types of illegal economy of Pakistan and offer long-term solutions that how can we safe our economy from these illegal trade of goods to support Pakistan. This report attempts to map out the proceeds from: Drugs and Precursors trafficking Kidnapping from ransom Trafficking of arms Human trafficking Migrant Smuggling These crimes are based on their contribution towards global, rational, regional risks. This study focus upon government policies towards illegal economy through group discussion. In past Pakistan faced difficulties because of smuggling. Smuggling demolished our economy so many times in multidimensional way. It undermines the local industries and decreases the volume of earnings and revenue which is collected from duties and service sectors. The volume of informal economy is raised up to 50 to 60% of the formal economy. Revenue loss on account of smuggling as estimated by the World Bank, amounted to US 35$ billion during nine years (2000-2009). Pak-Afghan border is the main problem. People living in Chaman didnt need visas to cross the border. They run the business on both sides as well as marriages. Goods up to 5 to 6 billion dollars were smuggled from Afghanistan to Pakistan through trade route especially dry fruits. Afghanistan also imports goods illegally from Pakistan such as milk, juices and other machinery items etc. Many of Pakhtoons have relatives on both sides. Afghans went to Pakistan for medical checkup, family functions and for business etc.But suddenly the travelling between two countries stopped. Pakistan has announced that for security reasons only Afghans with proper documents will be allowed to cross the border. Up to 25000 people use to cross border every day. One day 1 of the new policy thousands of people were facing problem in travelling from Afghanistan to Pakistan. Pushtoons with families across the border are worry about this situation. Afghan transit trade becomes a biggest source of smuggling. On the period of 2008-2010 the revenue loss is about 2.5 to 3 billion which are estimated annually during this period. The money which is collected illegally by some politicians, businessmen and terrorist are transferred to Swiss Bank. Up to $200 billion has transferred to Swiss Bank. Up to $40 billion alone black money lying in Swiss Bank of the year 2008-2009.On the other hand economy of Pakistan is increasing at the alarming rate of 20% per annum. Pakistanis entered the UK illegally and still continue for earning money. Around 430,000 Pakistanis live in UK. Due to the illegal migration, many Pakistanis were imprisoned in foreign jails. Beside these issues, there was an issue about tobacco control in Pakistan. Taxes on tobacco were increased due to which prices of cigarette were increased by 10%. Therefore, the demand for cigarette has reduced by 11.7%. The volume of smuggling is 18 billion Pakistani Rupees in cigarette and other tobacco products. Similarly, 22 billion Pakistani Rupees in petroleum product, 25 billion in automotive parts and 200 billion Pakistani Rupees in other commodities like cosmetics, cloth, medicines etc. People of Pakistan were using petroleum products smuggled from Iran because it is cheaper than that of Pakistan. The petroleum products up to 2 billion were smuggled from Iran to Pakistan. This situation is getting worse day by day. According to a survey in 2013, the smuggling in electronics has increased drastically. Each day thousands of cellphones and laptops are being shipped or imported in Pakistan alone in electronic markets illegally. Another research in this regard revealed that smuggler crosses Wahga border which has been opened by the president regime which would result in a huge chunk of Indian goods destined for Afghanistan would ultimately land in our domestic market which would destroy the national economy. They uses Pak-Iran border and Pak-Afghan border along with the coastal areas of Baluchistan to smuggle these goods to various parts of the country. This situation is very serious for the economy of Pakistan as these factors have great impact on any economy. The economic growth of Pakistan is already declining; one of the main factors is illegal trading or smuggling. The taxes which are imposed to all the imports are increasing therefore; the smuggling of commodities is at high right now. A local good is twice the price of the same good that has been smuggled. Or if its of same price, then the illegally transferred good is more reliable or more durable. All because of these factors the demand of these smuggled products are also very high. A middle class citizen who cant afford expensive stuff or goods can now buy just about anything because the price of smuggled stuff is half of what its actually worth. Government of Pakistan has introduced policies, rules and regulations to avoid these illegal trades. They have now put extra measures and security to afghan-Pakistan borders where smuggling is mostly done from. Also different check-up points have been made after few miles in highways to check the vehicles in order to avoid terrorism and smuggling in Pakistan. So, Government is taking steps to reduce these illegal trades but their efforts as of now are still in vain. Smuggling is a very serious matter in the entire world but unfortunately its condition in Pakistan is worse than the most of the countries in the word. Most of the smuggling goods in and out Afghanistan are through Pakistan. The Wagha Border is the main route of transportation of these illegal activities. To make the situation even worse, unfortunately out of 30 routes only 6 of these routes are under control of customs department of borders in Pakistan. The legal goods smuggled through Pakistan in different destinations are worth 2.8 Billion Dollars per year alone. In fact according to the latest reports Pakistan is losing 2.62 Billion worth of revenue per year by the smuggling of just 11 goods. The revenue is lost in the form of duties and taxes on smuggled goods that could be far higher than $2.63 billion or Rs276 billion, if the scope of the study is widened or spread to all the smuggled goods. The report took into account the impact of smuggling mobile phones, tea, vehicles, diesel, tires, auto parts, steel sheets, cigarettes, flat screens, plastics, and garments; on revenues, industrial production, investment and employment. In order to reduce the rate of smuggling government has to take some serious steps as it has a very bad impact in our economy. As a developing country, having smuggling rate as high as in Pakistan means bad news for the future. The goods that our country supply in its market is worth way more than the smuggled goods available in black markets. Even the concept of the black market has been fading in Pakistan because one can find smuggled almost anywhere in Pakistan. Steps must be taken to reduce this problem. All the NATO vehicles transporting commodities should be checked and approved by the Pakistani concerned authorities, also other vehicles carrying commodities in and out of Pakistan. Pakistani Borders should also be equipped with latest tech to detect any weapons or other illegal items that could be detected. In this report all the factors regarding smuggling shall be briefly discussed. On the very first section, forms of smuggling and there cautions will defined and apart from that its impacts on the economy of Pakistan shall also be discussed. From the given statistics of the past summaries of smuggling in Pakistan the future outcome and rate can be determined. Analyzing deportation patterns can be the only means of estimating volume of trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants. TABLE: GRAPH 1: This precise data shows that Pakistan has been increasing since 2007 with 16% change over the period of 2007-2013.Between the period of 2007- 2008 and 2010-2013 there is increase in volume while a decline was experienced from 2008-2010.There was highest deportees in 2013 and lowest deportees in 2010. GRAPH 2: Assessing the illegal economy is a challenging task.It is estimated that about USD 13,941 (PKR 15 lakhs = PKR 1,500,000) is charged by agents for destinations in Europe and about USD 13,011.43 14,870.21 (PKR 14 16 lakh) being charged for the United Kingdom. For the East it is estimated that USD 5,576.31 4,646.92 (PKR 5-6 lakhs) is charged for destinations like Malaysia and Indonesia. The minimum illegal ecocomy since 2007 can be estimated to be the following: TABLE: Overall it can be observed that numbers are increasing as these are based on deportation numbers. It has been observed that smuggling of migrants involves groups of participant. Each participant involves in an economic exchange.For Pakistan the total sum of services provided are following: It has been observed by the authorities that if detectors detected smuggled migrants then they punished them for 15 days in jail and a fine of between 200 to 1000 USD (PKR 20000 100000). If the detected smuggled migrant shares no specific information about the agent during the legal process he is able to receive 2 more attempts to take the same route without paying any additional fee to the agent. This practice makes the problem to identify the agents supporting the smuggling of migrants. GRAPH 3: On Human Trafficking the male to female ratio was 68% and 32% in 2007.By 2010 this has shown a minor increase in female share to 41%. This indicates that the number of female agents or traffickers is increasing in the region. In Pakistan, it is not possible to see any national trend on this phenomenon. The arrest rate nevertheless can be seen to be increasing for the most wanted traffickers.

Basic Principles of Democracy Essay

Democracy comes from the Greek word, â€Å"demos,† meaning people. In democracies, it is the people who hold sovereign power over legislator and government. Democracy is a form of government in which power is held by people under a free electoral system. It is derived from the Greek ÃŽ ´ÃŽ ·ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ºÃ ÃŽ ±Ãâ€žÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ±, â€Å"popular government†] which was coined from ÃŽ ´ÃŽ ®ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (dÄ“mos), â€Å"people† and ÃŽ ºÃ ÃŽ ¬Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (kratos), â€Å"rule, strength† in the middle of the 5th-4th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens following a popular uprising in 508 BC. In political theory, democracy describes a small number of related forms of government and also a political philosophy. Even though there is no universally accepted definition of ‘democracy’, there are two principles that any definition of democracy includes. The first principle is that all members o f the society have equal access to power and the second one that all the members enjoy universally recognized freedoms and liberties. There are several varieties of democracy some of which provide better representation and more freedoms for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not carefully legislated to avoid an uneven distribution of political power with balances such as the separation of powers, then a branch of the system of rule is able to accumulate power in a way that is harmful to democracy itself. The â€Å"majority rule† is often described as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without responsible government it is possible for the rights of a minority to be abused by the â€Å"tyranny of the majority†. An essential process  in representative democracies are competitive elections, that are fair both substantively and procedurally. Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech and freedom of the press are essential so that citizens are informed and able to vote in their personal interests. Popular sovereignty is common but not a universal motivating philosophy for establishing a democracy. In some countries, democracy is based on the philosophical principle of equal rights. Many people use the term â€Å"democracy† as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may include additional elements such as political pluralism, equality before the law, the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances, due process, civil liberties, human rights, and elements of civil society outside the government. In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a supporting attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant philosophy is parliamentary sovereignty (though in practice judicial independence is generally maintained). In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles are also applicable to private organizations and other groups. Though democracy has its origins in Ancient Greece other cultures have significantly contributed to the evolution of democracy such as Ancient India, Ancient Rome, Europe, and North and South America. Democracy has been called the â€Å"last form of government† and has spread considerably across the globe. Suffrage has been expanded in many jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group), but still remains a controversial issue with regard to disputed territories, areas with significant immigration, and countries that exclude certain demographic groups. The contemporary interpretation of democracy from the political point of view is that it is a system of government in which a country’s political leaders are chosen by the people in regular, free and fair elections. In a democracy, people have a choice between different candidates and parties who want the power to govern. The people can criticize and replace their elected leaders and representatives if they do not perform well. The people are sovereign — they are the highest authority  Ã¢â‚¬â€ and government is based on the will of the people. Elected representatives at the national and local levels must listen to the people and be responsive to their needs. That is why democracy depends upon a literate, knowledgeable citizenry whose access to information enables it to participate as fully as possible in the public life of their society and to criticize unwise or tyrannical government officials or policies. Citizens and their elected representatives recognize that democracy depends upon the widest possible access to uncensored ideas, data, and opinions. All people should have the right to form their own opinions and express them individually or in peaceful assemblies. Free societies cr eate a â€Å"marketplace of ideas† where people exchange their views on any number of issues. Although nuances apply to the world’s various democracies, certain principles and practices distinguish democratic government from other forms of government. †¢ Democracy is government in which power and civic responsibility are exercised by all citizens, directly or through their freely elected representatives. †¢ Democracy is a set of principles and practices that protect human freedom; it is the institutionalization of freedom. †¢ Democracy rests upon the principles of majority rule, coupled with individual and minority rights. All democracies, while respecting the will of the majority, zealously protect the fundamental rights of individuals and minority groups. †¢ Democracies guard against all-powerful central governments and decentralize government to regional and local levels, understanding that local government must be as accessible and responsive to the people as possible. †¢ Democracies understand that one of their prime functions is to protect such basic human rights as freedom of speech and religion; the right to equal protection under law; and the opportunity to organize and participate fully in the political, economic, and cultural life of society. †¢ Democracies conduct regular free and fair elections open to all citizens. Elections in a democracy cannot be facades that dictators or a single party hide behind, but authentic competitions for the support of the people. †¢ Democracy subjects governments to the rule of law and ensures that all citizens receive equal protection under the law and that their rights are protected by the legal system. †¢ Democracies are diverse, reflecting each nation’s unique political, social, and cultural life. †¢ Democracies rest upon fundamental principles, not uniform practices. †¢ Citizens in a democracy not only have rights, they have the responsibility to participate in the political system that, in turn, protects their rights and freedoms. †¢ Democratic societies are committed to the values of tolerance, cooperation, and compromise. †¢ Democracies recognize that reaching consensus requires compromise and that it may not always be attainable. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, â€Å"intolerance is itself a form of violence and an obstacle to the growth of a true democratic spirit.† Principles of Democracy People from around the world have identified the basic principles, which must exist in order to have a democratic government. These principles often  become a part of the constitution or bill of rights in a democratic society. Though no two democratic countries are exactly alike, people in democracies support many of the same basic principles and desire the same benefits from their government. The following are examples of the principles referred to as signposts of democracy, which will be used throughout this lesson: 1. Citizen Participation One of the most basic signposts of a democracy is citizen participation in government. Participation is the key role of citizens in democracy. It is not only their right, but it is their duty. Citizen participation may take many forms including standing for election, voting in elections, becoming informed, debating issues, attending community or civic meetings, being members of private voluntary organizations, paying taxes, and even protesting. Participation builds a better democracy. 2. Equality Democratic societies emphasize the principle that all people are equal. Equality means that all individuals are valued equally, have equal opportunities, and may not be discriminated against because of their race, religion, ethnic group, gender or sexual orientation. In a democracy, individuals and groups still maintain their right to have different cultures, personalities, languages and beliefs. 3. Political Tolerance Democratic societies are politically tolerant. This means that while the majority of the people rule in a democracy, the rights of the minority must be protected. People who are not in power must be allowed to organize and speak out. Minorities are sometimes referred to as the opposition because they may have ideas which are different from the majority. Individual citizens must also learn to be tolerant of each other. A democratic society  is often composed of people from different cultures, racial, religious and ethnic groups who have viewpoints different from the majority of the population. A democratic society is enriched by diversity. If the majority deny rights to and destroy their opposition, then they also destroy democracy. One goal of democracy is to make the best possible decision for the society. To achieve this, respect for all people and their points of view is needed. Decisions are more likely to be accepted, even by those who oppose them, if all citizens have been allowed to discuss, debate and question them. 4. Accountability As George Washington said â€Å"Government is not reason, it is not eloquence,it is a force! Like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a fearful master; never for a moment should it be left to irresponsible action.† In a democracy, elected and appointed officials have to be accountable to the people. They are responsible for their actions. Officials must make decisions and perform their duties according to the will and wishes of the people, not for themselves. Government accountability means that public officials – elected and un-elected – have an obligation to explain their decisions and actions to the citizens. Government accountability is achieved through the use of a variety of mechanisms – political, legal, and administrative – designed to prevent corruption and ensure that public officials remain answerable and accessible to the people they serve. In the absence of such mechanisms, corruption may thrive. The primary political accountability mechanism is free and fair elections. Fixed-terms of office and elections force elected officials to account for their performance and provide opportunities for challengers to offer citizens alternative policy choices. If voters are not satisfied with the performance of an official, they may vote them out of office when their terms expire. The degree to which public officials are politically accountable is a function of whether they occupy an elected versus appointed position, how often they are up for reelection, and how many terms they can serve. Legal accountability mechanisms include the whole legal framework – constitutions, legislative acts, decrees, rules, codes, and other legal instruments that proscribe actions that public officials can  and cannot take and how citizens may take action against those officials whose conduct is considered unsatisfactory. An independent judiciary is an essential requirement for the success of legal accountability, serving as a venue where citizens bring claims against the government. Legal accountability mechanisms include: †¢ Ethics statutes and codes of conduct for public officials, outlining unacceptable practices †¢ Conflict of interest and financial disclosure laws, requiring public officials to divulge the source of their income and assets so that citizens may judge whether the actions of those officials are likely to be influenced improperly by financial interests †¢ â€Å"Sunshine† laws, providing the press and the public access to government records and meetings †¢ Citizen participation requirements, dictating that certain government Judicial review, providing courts the power to review the decisions and actions of public officials and agencies. Administrative accountability mechanisms include offices within agencies or ministries and practices within administrative processes designed to ensure that the decisions and actions of public officials account for the interest of the citizens. Administrative accountability mechanisms include: †¢ Ombudsmen, responsible for hearing and addressing citizen complaints; †¢ Independent auditors who scrutinize the use of public funds for signs of misuse; †¢ Administrative courts, that hear citizens’ complaints about agency decisions; †¢ Ethics rules protecting so-called whistleblowers – those within government who speak out about corruption or abuse of official authority – from reprisals. 5. Transparency For government to be accountable the people must be aware of what is happening in the country. This is referred to as transparency in government. A transparent government holds public meetings and allows citizens to attend. In a democracy, the press and the people are able to get information about what decisions are being made, by whom and why. 6. Regular, Free and Fair Elections One way citizens of the country express their will is by electing officials to represent them in government. Democracy insists that these elected officials are chosen and peacefully removed from office in a free and fair manner. Intimidation, corruption and threats to citizens during or before an election are against the principles of democracy. In a democracy, elections are held regularly every so many years. Participation in elections should not be based on a citizen’s wealth. For free and fair elections to occur, most adult citizens should have the right to stand for government office. Additionally, obstacles should not exist which make it difficult for people to vote. Free and fair elections allow people living in a representative democracy to determine the political makeup and future policy direction of their nation’s government. Free and fair elections increase the likelihood of a peaceful transfer of power. They help to ensure that losing candidates will accept the validity of the election’s results and cede power to the new government. Elections alone do not assure democracy since dictators can use the resources of the state to tamper with the election process. Free and fair elections require: †¢ Universal suffrage for all eligible men and women to vote – democracies do not restrict this right from minorities, the disabled, or give it only to those who are literate or who own property. †¢ Freedom to register as a voter or run for public office. †¢ Freedom of speech for candidates and political parties – democracies do not restrict candidates or political parties from criticizing the performance of the incumbent. †¢ Numerous opportunities for the electorate to receive objective information from a free press. †¢ Freedom to assemble for political rallies and campaigns. †¢ Rules that require party representatives to maintain a distance from polling places on election day – election officials, volunteer poll workers, and international monitors may assist voters with the voting  process but not the voting choice. †¢ An impartial or balanced system of conducting elections and verifying election results – trained election officials must either be politically independent or those overseeing elections should be representative of the parties in the election. †¢ Accessible polling places, private voting space, secure ballot boxes, and transparent ballot counting. †¢ Secret ballots – voting by secret ballot ensures that an individual’s choice of party or candidate cannot be used against him or her. †¢ Legal prohibitions against election fraud – enforceable laws must exist to prevent vote tampering (e.g. double counting, ghost voting). †¢ Recount and contestation procedures – legal mechanisms and processes to review election processes must be established to ensure that elections were conducted properly. 7. Economic Freedom People in a democracy must have some form of economic freedom. This means that the government allows some private ownership of property and businesses, and that the people are allowed to choose their own work and labor unions. The role the government should play in the economy is open to debate, but it is generally accepted that free markets should exist in a democracy and the state should not totally control the economy. Some argue that the state should play a stronger role in countries where great inequality of wealth exists due to past discrimination or other unfair practices. 8. Control of the Abuse of Power Democratic societies try to prevent any elected official or group of people from misusing or abusing their power. One of the most common abuses of power is corruption. Corruption occurs when government officials use public funds for their own benefit or exercise power in an illegal manner. Various methods have been used in different countries to protect against these abuses. Frequently the government is structured to limit the powers of the branches of government: to have independent courts and agencies with power to act against any illegal action by an elected official or branch of  government; to allow for citizen participation and elections; and to check for police abuse of power. 9. Accepting the Results of Elections In democratic elections, there are winners and losers. Often the losers in an election believe so strongly that their party or candidate is the best one, that they refuse to accept the results of the election. This is against democratic principles. The consequences of not accepting the result of an election may be a government that is ineffective and cannot make decisions. It may even result in violence which is also against democracy. 10. Human Rights All democracies strive to respect and protect the human rights of citizens. Human rights mean those values that reflect respect for human life and human dignity. Democracy emphasizes the value of every human being. Examples of human rights include freedom of expression, freedom of association, freedom of assembly, the right to equality and the right to education. All human beings are born with inalienable rights. These human rights empower people to pursue lives of dignity – thus, no government can bestow them but all governments should protect them. Freedom, built on a foundation of justice, tolerance, dignity, and respect – regardless of ethnicity, religion, political association, or social standing – allows people to pursue these fundamental rights. Whereas dictatorships deny human rights, free societies continually strive to attain them. Human rights are interdependent and indivisible; they encompass myriad facets of human existence including social, political, and economic issues. Among the most commonly accepted are: †¢ All people should have the right to express their ideas and opinions. †¢ All people should have the right to participate in government. Governments should create laws that protect human rights while justice systems enforce those laws equally among the population. †¢ Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention, and torture – whether one is an opponent of the  ruling political party, an ethnic minority, or even a common criminal – is a basic human right. A professional police force respects all citizens as it enforces the laws of the nation. †¢ In ethnically diverse nations, religious and ethnic minorities should be free to use their language and maintain their traditions without fear of recrimination from the majority population. Governments should recognize the rights of minorities while respecting the will of the majority. †¢ All people should have the opportunity to work, earn a living, and support their families. †¢ Children deserve special protection. They should receive at least an elementary education, proper nutrition, and healthcare. To maintain human rights, citizens in any free society need to be vigilant. Citizen responsibility – through a variety of participatory activities – ensures that government remains accountable to the people. The family of free nations is committed to work toward protection of human rights. They formalize their commitment through a number of international treaties and covenants on human rights. 11. Multi-Party Systems In order to have a multi-party system, more than one political party must participate in elections and play a role in government. A multi-party system allows for opposition to the party, which wins the election. This helps provide the government with different viewpoints on issues. Additionally, a multi-party system provides voters with a choice of candidates, parties and policies to vote for. Historically, when a country only has one party, the result has been a dictatorship. To preserve and protect individual rights and freedoms, a democratic people must work together to shape the government of their choosing. And the principal way of doing that is through political parties. Political parties are voluntary organizations that link the people and their government. Parties recruit candidates and campaign to elect them to public office, and they mobilize people to participate in selecting government leaders. The majority party (or the party elected to control the offices of government) seeks to enact into law a number of different policies and programs. Parties of the opposition are free to criticize the majority party’s policy ideas and offer their own proposals. Political  parties provide a way for citizens to hold elected party officials accountable for their actions in government. Democratic political parties have faith in the principles of democracy so that they recognize and respect the authority of the elected government even when their party leaders are not in power. Like any democracy, members of various political parties reflect the diversity of the cultures in which they arise. Some are small and built around a set of political beliefs. Others are organized around economic interests, or shared history. Still others are loose alliances of different citizens who may only come together at election time. All democratic political parties, whether they are small movements or large national coalitions, share the values of compromise and tolerance. They know that only through broad alliances and cooperation with other political parties and organizations can they provide the leadership and common vision that will win the support of the people of the nation. Democratic parties recognize that political views are fluid and changeable, and that consensus can often arise out of the clash of ideas and values in peaceful, free, and public debate. The concept of the loyal opposition is central to any democracy. It means that all sides in political debate – however deep their differences – share the fundamental democratic values of freedom of speech and faith, and equal protection under law. Parties that lose elections step into the role of opposition – confident that the political system will continue to protect their right to organize and speak out. In time, their party will have a chance to campaign again for its ideas, and the votes of the people. In a democracy, the struggle between political parties is not a fight for survival, but a competition to serve the people. 12. The Rule of Law In a democracy no one is above the law, not even a king or an elected President. This is called the rule of law. It means that everyone must obey the law and be held accountable if they violate it. Democracy also insists that the law be equally, fairly and consistently enforced. This is sometimes referred to as â€Å"due process of law.† For much of human history, rulers and law were synonymous – law was simply the will of the ruler. A first step away from such tyranny was the notion of rule by law, including the notion  that even a ruler is under the law and should rule by virtue of legal means. Democracies went further by establishing the rule of law. Although no society or government system is problem-free, rule of law protects fundamental political, social, and economic rights and reminds us that tyranny and lawlessness are not the only alternatives. Rule of law means that no individual, president or private citizen, stands above law. Democratic governments exercise authority by way of law and are themselves subject to law’s constraints. Laws should express the will of the people, not the whims of kings, dictators, military officials, religious leaders, or self-appointed political parties. Citizens in democracies are willing to obey the laws of their society, then, because they are submitting to their own rules and regulations. Justice is best achieved when the laws are established by the very people who must obey them. Under the rule of law, a system of strong, independent courts should have the power and authority, resources, and the prestige to hold government officials, even top leaders, accountable to the nation’s laws and regulations. For this reason, judges should be well trained, professional, independent, and impartial. To serve their necessary role in the legal and political system, judges must be committed to the principles of democracy. The laws of a democracy may have many sources: written constitutions; statutes and regulations; religious and ethical teachings; and cultural traditions and practices. Regardless of origin the law should enshrine certain provisions to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens: Under the requirement of equal protection under the law, the law may not be uniquely applicable to any single individual or group. Citizens must be secure from arbitrary arrest and unreasonable search of their homes or the seizure of their personal property. Citizens charged with crimes are entitled to a speedy and public trial, along with the opportunity to confront and question their accusers. If convicted, they may not be subjected to cruel or unusual punishment. Citizens cannot be forced to testify against themselves. This principle protects citizens from coercion, abuse, or torture and greatly reduces the temptation of police to employ such measures. 13. Bill of Rights Many democratic countries also choose to have a bill of rights to protect people against abuse of power. A bill of rights is a list of rights and freedoms guaranteed to all people in the country. When a bill of rights becomes part of a country’s constitution, the courts have the power to enforce these rights. A bill of rights limits the power of government and may also impose duties on individuals and organizations. The role of the Non-governmental Organizations In democracies, ordinary citizens may organize independent groups that serve the needs of the community or nation they live in and complement, supplement, or even challenge the work of the government. Such organizations are often called nongovernmental organizations, or NGOs, because they are not an extension of the government’s offices. NGOs allow citizens to improve their society by advocating, educating, and mobilizing attention around major public issues and monitoring the conduct of government and private enterprise. NGOs enable citizens from different backgrounds to learn to work together and build the skills, relationships, and trust necessary for good government. NGOs serve a great variety of citizen interests. They may act as social service providers, advocates for the environment or for living standards, work standards, or as the catalysts for democratic change. NGOs often represent the interests of those citizens who might otherwise be left out of national policy de bates. They open the public discourse to people of all economic and social classes and to women and minorities. Funding for NGOs may come from individual private donations, private trusts and philanthropies, corporations, religious institutions, international institutions, other NGOs, sales of goods and services, and even governments. Governments and NGOs frequently work as partners. NGOs may provide local and regional expertise and personnel on the ground for implementation of government-funded projects. NGOs may be politically unaffiliated, or they may be based on partisan ideals and seek to advance a particular cause or set of causes in the public interest. In either model the key point is that NGOs should operate under minimal political control of states. NGOs develop local and international programs in virtually all areas that contribute to the promotion of the principles of democracy, including: †¢ Human rights  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ by promoting international standards and monitoring for violations and abuses. †¢ Rule of law – through low-cost or free legal aid, educating all citizens regarding their rights, and advocating for legal reforms. †¢ Women’s participation – by preparing them for political participation and protecting them from socioeconomic discrimination. †¢ Civic education – through education programs focusing on the role of the citizen in a democratic and diverse society. †¢ A free press – by promoting independent media, training journalists, and setting standards for ethical journalism. †¢ Political party development – through election monitoring by trained domestic observers and nonpartisan voter registration drives. †¢ Government accountability †“ by conducting policy analysis and serving as watchdogs over governmental actions. Democracy in the EU â€Å"The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail. â€Å" These are universal values and not the values of the Europeans alone. Many countries in the world are recognising and implementing these values or at least have written them down in one or the other form. In order to obtain the objectives of the Union based on the afore-mentioned values, the European Union needs certain powers conferred in a legal framework. It is foreseen that these powers must be exercised using the Community method and specific instruments within a single institutional framework. But through the implementation of these universal values, the European Union has become already a success story that is making membership to the Union so very attractive to its neighbours and an example for other regions in the world= More citizens in Europe live in countries with competitive elections, political freedoms and respect for human rights than ever before. Part of this success story can be attributed – undeniably – to the process of European integration. Paradoxically, however, the European Union also finds itself increasingly the subject of general cynicism and dissatisfaction among its citizenry. Therefore, a better understanding of democracy has become vital at all levels of government, and in particular regarding the future of the EU itself. Proposals for the further democratisation of EU decision-making can be pieced together from at least the following four different dimensions of choice: Intergovernmental vs Supranational Under intergovernmental approaches, the EU is democratised through the elected institutions of its member states. In the contemporary EU, for example, each member country has to ratify any change to EU Treaties according to the democratic mechanism of its choice, with referendums being used in some cases and national parliamentary votes in others. In addition, most important decisions have to be taken by the Council of Ministers on which all national governments are represented. Even with majority voting, this allows national parliaments scope to influence the development of EU policy and hold their governments responsible for their behaviour at Union level . They can review the negotiating positions of their governments before meetings of the Council of Ministers. They can scrutinise draft legislation, which has to be circulated to each national parliament in its own language at least six weeks before it is voted in the Council. They also have important discretion in deciding how EU acquis is to be transposed into national law, since directives only require member states to achieve certain results, without specifying the methods to be employed. Under supranational approaches, entirely new democratic institutions are established at the European level. They are purpose-made for the EU’s political system, and they operate with at least some consistency across the Union as whole. So, for example, the European Parliament is directly elected by all adult citizens of the EU. Its powers, are directed to making law for the Union as a whole, and at scrutinising, criticising and controlling the overall performance of Commission and Council in their role as the EU’s double-headed executive. In brief, it has the power to: †¢ Approve or reject the member states’ choice of Commission and Commission President †¢ Dismiss the Commission on a double majority (two-thirds of votes cast, provided that those voting for a censure comprise more than half of the Parliament’s membership). The resignation of the Santer Commision in March 1999 undermined the argument that this was unlikely ever to happen. †¢ Reject legislation in some areas (Co-decision) and amend it in others (Cooperation). The increasing use of the former means that the EP approaches bicameral status with the Council in a political system where rule-making is, arguably, the main activity. Even the latter allows the EP to structure the choices that are subsequently available to the Council. As the previous examples imply, the EU currently mixes and matches intergovernmental and supranational approaches to democratic politics. Consensus vs Majoritarian Democracy Majoritarian democracy is where decisions can be taken by a bare majority of the public or its representatives. Its proponents argue that any alternative amounts to minority rule. Consensus democracy is where the aim is to align policies with the preferences of the greatest number of citizens or their representatives, rather than with those of a simple majority. Its defenders argue that any alternative allows minorities to be excluded and is not, therefore, rule by the people as a whole. Amongst examples of consensus democracy are the following: †¢ Supermajoritarian decision-rules: these require decisions to be approved by more than 50 per cent of representatives. At present the EU employs supermajorities twice over, in both the Council and the EP. Majority voting in the Council requires 71 per cent of the weighted votes of member states. Most powers of the EP can only be exercised on an absolute majority of its membership. Given normal rates of absenteeism this effectively means that a majority of around two-thirds is usually needed in the EP, as well as the Council of Ministers. †¢ Federal systems: these parcel decision-making out between layers of government. It is rare for the EU to be the only body with powers in an issue area. It normally shares jurisdiction with national and sub-national authorities with which it has to co-ordinate its activities. †¢ Consociational systems: these guarantee the participation of all main cultural units in the most important decisions of a political system. In the EU, for example, all governments nominate at least one Commissioner; all member states have a seat on the Council and the opportunity to hold its rotating Presidency for a period of six months; both Council and Parliament over-represent smaller member states in a manner that underlines the principle that it is national communities — and not just citizens — that are units of value in the EU’s political system; and even the Governing Council of the European Central Bank works on the principle ‘one national central bank, one vote’. Direct vs Indirect Democracy Direct democracy is where the people itself takes major decisions of government. The alternative is that they only exercise public control indirectly through appointed representatives. As will be seen below, this distinction is mainly relevant to prescriptions for the democratisation of the EU, rather than to its current practice. Strategic vs Communicative Democracy Strategic models of democracy presuppose that actors have clear and fixed views of their interests. The main goal of democratic institutions is then to find the most efficient means of aggregating the preferences of individuals into collective actions, albeit subject to various standards of fairness. Communicative models of democracy hold that preferences also need to be debated within the political system, either because they are not fully formed prior to a process of discussion, or because group action is so very different from individual action, both actually and morally. A big question for the EU is whether it can develop a public sphere that all citizens can access as equals, and through the medium of which all points of view can be debated and compared. Connecting European citizens to one another — and to EU institutions — raises problems of language, media, party systems and the associational structure of society, almost all of which are presently organised to support national forms of democracy, rather than a European equivalent. The future of a strong European Union with 27 member states and more will only be possible if rules are implemented which make decisions more democratic, more transparent and thus more efficient. A good and democratic society in the European context is a society which is open to reforms or is able to become a better society – I.e. an active civil society. The European Civil Society can give a new direction to politics. Politicians will then follow. Only a European Civil Society which is better informed about European values, objectives and challenges will give Europe a new impetus to the further democratic development of Europe.